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RELIGIOUS  DENOMINATIONS 


WORLD: 


COMPRISING 


A    GENERAL    VIEW    OP    THE    ORIGIN,   HISTORY,  AND    CONDITION    OF    TUB 

VAK10US  SECTS. OP  CHRISTIANS,  THE  JEWS,  AND  MAHOMETANS.   AS 

WELL    AS    THE    PAGAN    FORMS    OF    RELIGION    EXISTING   IN 

THE  DIFFERENT  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  EARTH: 


of  %  JJmnto  of  iatious  gdigious 

FROM  THE   BEST  ACTHORITIES. 

BY    VINCENT    L.   MILNER. 


A   NBTW   AND  IMPROVED   F.DITION, 

WITH   AN    APPENDIX   BROUGHT   UP  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIMK, 

BY  J.  NEWTON  BKOWN,  D.D., 

EDITOR    OP    "ENCYCl.'ll'BMA    OF    BEL1QIOU8    KNOWLEDGE." 

SOLD  ONLY  BY  SUBSCRIPTION. 


BRADLEY,    GARRETSON    &    CO., 
PHILADELPHIA,   66    NORTH    FOURTH    STREET. 

WILLIAM    GARRETSOX    &    CO., 

GALESBURG,    ILL.:    COLUMBUS,    OHIO: 

NASHVILLE,  TENN.:  HOUSTON,  TEXAS. 

1872. 


Ertered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  In  the  year  1871,  by 

BKADLET  A  CO., 
In  th«  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


PREFACE. 


THE  following  riew  of  the  religious  denominations  of  the  world 
has  been  carefully  compiled  from  the  best  authorities  on  the  sub- 
ject. In  order  *o  render  it  as  complete  as  the  limits  of  the 
volume  would  permit,  the  method  has  been  followed  of  present- 
ing summaries  of  the  doctrines  of  each  sect  or  religion  without 
in  general  adducing  the  arguments  by  which  they  are  sustained. 
The  latter  course  would  have  led  into  too  wide  a  field  of  contro- 
versy. In  order  to  preserve  the  degree  of  impartiality  which 
the  reader  is  entitled  to  expect  in  a  work  of  this  kind,  the  com- 
piler has  confined  himself  to  authorities  in  which  the  doctrines 
of  the  several  sects  are  drawn  from  the  published  works  of  their 
founders  or  leading  writers. 

The  subject  is  full  of  instruction.  It  forms  a  part  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  human  intellect,  as  it  has  been  exercised  in  different 
ages  of  the  world,  on  topics  the  most  interesting  that  can  possibly 
claim  the  attention  of  mankind.  In  reviewing  the  various  forms 
of  faith  and  shades  of  opinion  on  religion  which  have  prevailed 

(iii) 


IV  PREFACE. 

in  different  ages  find  various  parts  of  the  world,  we  may  loam  the 
influence  of  external  circumstances  on  internal  belief;  and  that 
of  speculative  opinions  on  the  actual  condr-ct  of  life.  We  per- 
ceive also  the  first  effect  of  freedom  of  religious  inquiry,  in  multi- 
plying sects  and  dividing  extensive  religious  organizations  into 
numerous  branches.  Above  all,  we  may  learn  from  this  genera] 
survey  of  religious  sects,  the  lesson  of  charity  and  forbearance  tow- 
ard those  who  may  entertain  theological  opinions  different  from 
our  own. 

This  volume  will  also  show  the  gratifying  truth,  that  while  the 
first  effect  of  religious  freedom  may  be  to  multiply  divisions,  its 
final  effect  is  to  heal  them.  Some  of  the  most  scandalous  divisions 
in  all  ages  have  grown  out  of  the  attempts  of  governments,  civil 
and  ecclesiastical,  to  stifle  freedom  of  inquiry  and  suppress  its 
manifestations :  and  while  such  despotism  continues,  no  restorative 
process  is  possible.  Whereas,  the  natural  growth  of  Christian 
feeling  under  free  institutions,  teijds  to  bring  together  bodies  long 
divided  and  alienated,  whether  in  the  Old  World  or  in  the  New. 
This  happy  effect  of  perfect  religious  freedom  is  most  manifest  in 
oar  own  country  at  the  present  time.  As  in  the  beginning,  Chris- 
tians were  "  of  one  heart  and  of  one  soul,"  so  it  may  be  hoped, 
they  will  here  become,  through  the  unfettered  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures and  the  influence  of  the  same  Spirit  which  then  guided  them 
into  all  truth :  "  for  the  earth  shall  be  full  of  the  knowledge  of  the 
Lord."  Sects  will  disappear  in  the  overflowing  fulness  of  faith 
and  love.  Despotism  in  Church  and  State  may  produce  hypocriti- 
cal UNIFORMITY,  but  perfect  religious  freedom  is  the  primary  condi- 
tion of  CHRISTIAN  UNITY. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


PAGl 

A.BYSSINTAN  CHURCH 365 

ADAMITES 366 

AFRICAN  METHODISTS 107 

AGNOETAE 408 

ALBANENSES 409 

ALBIGENSES 367 

AMERICAN  PRESBYTERIANS 11? 

ANABAPTISTS ^. 356 

ANTI-SABBATARIANS 464 

ANTINOMIANS 35ft 

ARIANS 243 

ARMENIANS 245 

ARMENIANS 246 

ASSOCIATE   PRESBYTERIANS ISC- 
ASSOCIATE  REFORMED 133 

ATHEISTS 464 

BAPTISTS 35 

BASILIDIANS 461 

BAXTERIANS 249 

BEREANS 403 

BUAMINS 486 

BROWNISTS 203 

BUDDHISTS 489 

CALVINISTS 344 

CARMATHITES '. 439 

CERINTHIANS 442 

CHRISTIANS 164 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  JOHN 46<J 

1* 


Viii  ALPHABETICAL     INDEX. 

tJUU 

NEONOMIANS 214 

NESTORIANS 468 

NONCONFORMISTS .X 217 

ORIGENISTS 411 

PAGANS 473 

PAGANS  OF   AFRICA 492 

PAG\NS  OF  CHINA 475 

TAG\NS  OF  JAPAN 478 

PAGANS  OF   LAPLAND. 513 

PAGANS  OF  MADAGASCAR 496 

PAGANS  OF  MEXICO 519 

PAGANS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 515 

PAGANS  OF  PERU 525 

PAGANS  OF  POLYNESIA 508 

PANTHEISTS 369 

PAULICIANS 416 

PAULIANISTS 415 

PELAGIANS 329 

PETROBRUSSIANS 414 

PIETISTS 336 

PURITANS 200 

QUAKERS 228 

REFORMED  METHODISTS 104 

REFORMED  PRESBYTERIANS 124 

RELLYANISTS 435 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS 527 

SABELLIANS 444 

SADDUCEES 440 

SAMARITANS 440 

SANDEMANIANS 375 

SEVENTH-DAY  BAPTISTS 155 

SHAKERS 251 

SIX-PRINCIPLE    BAPTISTS 166 

SOCTNIANS 373 

SECOND  ADVENTISTS 370 

SPIRITUALISTS 543 

SUBLAPSARIANS 431 

SUPRALAPSARIANS 432 

SWEDENBORGTANS 171 

THEOPHILANTHROPISTS....  ..  253 


ALPHABETICAL     INDEX. 


]62 
UNITARIANS  ..................................................................  168 

UNITED  BRETHREN   IN  CHRIST  .................................  327 

UNITED  PRESBYTERIANS  ............................................  136 

UNIVERSALISTS  .............................................................  170 

WALDENSES  ..................  .  .................................................  274 

WICKLIFFITES  ...............................................................  272 

WINEBRENNARIANS  ......................................................  167 

WESLEYAN  METHODISTS  ..............................................  106 

WILKINSONIANS...,  ..  273 


I1STDEX  TO  APPENDIX. 


AMERICAN  PRESBYTERIANS 555 

ANABAPTISTS 564 

ARMENIANS 559 

BAPTISTS 583 

BRAMINS:  BUDDHISTS 568 

CHRISTIANS 557 

CHRISTIANITY 584 

CONGREGATIONALISTS 558 

DUTCH  REFORMED  CHURCH 551 

EPISCOPALIANS .' 550 

FREE   CHURCH 555 

FREE-WILL  BAPTISTS 557 

GERMAN  REFORMED  CHURCH 551 

GNOSTICS 559 

GREEK  CHURCH 563 

KIRK  OF  SCOTLAND 554 

LOLLARDS 568 

LUTHERANS 551 

MAHOMETANISM 563 

MANICHAEANS 564 

METHODISTS 553 

MORMONS....  ..  559 


X.  ALPHABETICAL     INDEX. 

PAO» 

MONOPRYSITES 5G8 

PAGANS 568 

PAGANS  OF  AFRICA 569 

PAGANS  OF  AMERICA 570 

PAGANS   OF  CHINA 569 

PAGANS  OF  JAPAN 569 

PAGANS  OF  MADAGASCAR 569 

PAGANS  OF   POLYNESIA 570 

PAULICIANS 568 

PETROBRTJSSIANS 568 

PROGRESSIVE  FRIENDS 557 

BATIONALISTS 559 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS 570 

SPIRITUALISTS 548 

UNITED  PRESBYTERIANS 555 

UNITARIANS 558 

UNIVERSALISTS 558 

WALDENSES 573 

WICKLIFFITES 561 

WINEBRENNARIANS 557 

BE-UNION  OF  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 592 

FREE  METHODIST  CHURCH 606 

THE  SOUTHERN  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH ..  Gu9 


INTRODUCTION. 


SECTION    L 

STATE    OP    TI1E    WORLD    IN    GENERAL,    AT    THE    BIRTH    OF 

JESUS     CHRIST. 

WHEN  Jesus  Christ  made  his  appearance  on  earth,  a  great 
part  of  the  world  was  subject  to  the  Roman  Empire.  This 
empire  was  much  the  largest  temporal  monarchy  that  had  ever 
existed,  so  that  it  was  called  all  the  world  (Luke  ii.  1).  The 
time  when  the  Romans  first  subjugated  the  land  of  Judea,  was 
between  sixty  and  seventy  years  before  Christ  was  born ;  and 
Boon  after  this  the  Roman  Empire  rose  to  its  greatest  extent  and 
splendor.  To  this  government  the  world  continued  subject  till 
Christ  came,  and  many  hundred  years  afterwards.  The  remoter 
nations,  that  had  submitted  to  the  yoke  of  this  mighty  empire, 
were  ruled  either  by  Roman  governors,  invested  with  temporary 
commissions,  or  by  their  own  princes  and  laws,  in  subordination 
to  the  republic,  whose  sovereignty  was  acknowledged,  and  to 
which  the  conquered  kings,  who  were  continued  in  their  own 
dominions,  owed  their  borrowed  majesty.  At  the  same  time,  the 
Roman  people,  and  their  venerable  Senate,  though  they  had  not 
lost  all  shadow  of  liberty,  were  yet  in  reality  reduced  to  a  state 
of  servile  submission  to  Augustus  Caesar,  who,  by  artifice,  per- 
fidy, and  bloodshed,  attained  an  enormous  degree  of  power,  and 


Xll  INTRODUCTION. 

united  in  his  own  person  the  pompous  titles  of  Emperor,  Pon- 
tiff, Censor,  Tribune  of  the  People;  in  a  word,  all  the  great 
offices  of  the  State. 

At  this  period,  the  Romans,  according  to  Daniel's  prophetic 
description,  had  trodden  down  the  kingdoms,  and  by  their  ex 
cecding  strength  devoured  the  whole  earth.  However,  by  en- 
slaving  the  world,  they  civilized  it;  and  whilst  they  oppressed 
mankind,  they  united  them  together.  The  same  laws  were 
everywhere  established,  and  the  same  languages  understood 
Men  approached  nearer  to  one  another  in  sentiments  and  man- 
ners :  and  the  intercourse  between  the  most  .distant  regions  of 
the  earth  was  rendered  secure  and  agreeable.  Hence,  the  benign 
influence  of  letters  and  philosophy  was  spread  abroad  in  coun- 
tries which  had  been  before  enveloped  in  the  darkest  ignorance. 

Just  before  Christ  was  born,  the  Roman  empire  not  only  rose 
to  its  greatest  height,  but  was  also  settled  in  peace.  Augustus 
Caesar  had  been  for  many  years  establishing  the  state  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  subduing  his  enemies,  till  the  very  year 
that  Christ  was  born :  then,  all  his  enemies  being  reduced  to 
subjection,  his  dominion  over  the  world  appeared  to  be  settled 
in  its  greatest  glory.  This  remarkable  peace,  after  so  many  ages 
of  tumult  and  war,  was  a  fit  prelude  to  the  ushering  of  the 
glorious  Prince  of  Peace  into  the  world.  The  tranquillity  which 
then  reigned  was  necessary  to  enable  the  ministers  of  Christ  to 
execute  with  success  their  sublime  commission  to  the  human 
race.  In  the  situation  into  which  the  providence  of  God  had 
brought  the  world,  the  gospel  in  a  few  years  reached  those  remote 
corners  of  the  earth  into  which  it  could  not  otherwise  have  pe&o- 
trated  for  many  ages. 

All  the  heathen  nations,  at  the  time  of  Christ's  appearance 
on  earth,  worshipped  a  multiplicity  of  gods  and  demons,  whose 
favor  they  courted  by  obscene  and  ridiculous  ceremonies,  and 
whose  anger  they  endeavored  to  appease  by  the  most  abominable 
cruelties. 

Every  nation  had  its  respective  gods,  over  which  one,  more 
excell  jnt  than  the  rest,  presided ;  yet  in  such  a  manner,  that  the 
supreme  deity  WUH  himself  controlled  by  the  rigid  decrees  of 


INTRODUCTION.  Xlll 

fate,  or  by  what  the  philosophers  called  eternal  necessity.  The 
gods  of  the  East  were  different  from  those  of  the  Gauls,  the 
Germans,  and  other  northern  nations.  The  Grecian  divinities 
differed  from  those  of  the  Egyptians,  who  deified  plants,  and  a 
great  variety  of  the  productions  both  of  nature  and  art.  Each 
people  had  also  their  peculiar  manner  of  worshipping  and  ap- 
peasing its  respective  deities  In  process  of  time,  however,  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  grew  as  ambitious  in  their  religious  preten- 
sions, as  in  their  political  claims.  They  maintained  that  their 
gods,  though  under  different  appellations,  were  the  objects  of 
religious  worship  in  all  nations ;  and  therefore  they  gave  the 
names  of  their  deities  to  those  of  other  countries. 

The  deities  of  almost  all  nations  were  either  ancient  heroes, 
renowned  for  noble  exploits  and  worthy  deeds,  or  kings  and 
generals,  who  had  founded,  empires,  or  women  who  had  become 
illustrious  by  remarkalole  actions  or  useful  inventions.  The  merit 
of  those  eminent  persons,  contemplated  by  their  posterity  with 
enthusiastic  gratitude,  was  the  cause  of  their  exaltation  to  celes- 
tial honors.  The  natural  world  furnished  another  kind  of  dei- 
ties; and  as  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  shine  with  a  lustre  superior 
to  that  of  all  other  material  beings,  they  received  religious  homage 
from  almost  all  the  nations  of  the  world. 

From  those  beings  of  a  nobler  kind,  idolatry  descended  into 
an  enormous  multiplication  of  inferior  powers;  so  that,  in  many 
countries,  mountains,  trees,  and  rivers,  the  earth,  the  sea,  and 
wind,  nay,  even  virtues,  and  vices,  and  diseases,  had  their  shrines 
attended  by  devout  and  zealous  worshippers. 

These  deities  were  honored  with  rites  and  sacrifices  of  various 
kinds,  according  to  their  respective  nature  and  offices.  Most 
nations  offered  animals,  and  human  sacrifices  were  universal  in 
ancient  times.  They  were  in  use  among  the  Egyptians  till  lha 
rcisrn  of  Atnasis.  They  were  never  so  common  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans ;  yet  they  were  practised  by  them  on  extraordinary 
occasions.  Porphyry  says  "  that  the  Greeks  were  wont  to  sacri- 
fice men  when  they  went  to  war."  He  relates,  also,  "  that  human 
sacrifices  were  offered  at  Rome  till  the  reign  of  Adrian,  who  or- 
dered them  to  be  abolished  in  most  places." 
2 


XIV  INTRODUCTION. 

Pontiffs,  priests,  and  ministers,  distributed  into  several  classes, 
presided  over  the  Pagan  worship,  and  were  appointed  to  prevent 
disorder  in  the  performance  of  religious  rites.  The  sacerdotal 
order,  which  was  supposed  to  be  distinguished  by  an  immediate 
intercourse  and  friendship  with  the  gods,  abused  its  authority 
in  the  basest  manner,  to  deceive  an  ignorant  and  wretched 
people. 

The  religious  worship  of  the  Pagans  was  confined  to  certain 
times  and  places.  The  statues,  and  other  representations  of  the 
gods,  were  placed  in  the  temples,  and  supposed  to  be  animated 
in  an  incomprehensible  manner  —  for  they  carefully  avoided  the 
imputation  of  worshipping  inanimate  beings  —  anl  therefore  pre- 
tended that  the  divinity,  represented  by  the  statue,  was  really 
present  in  it,  if  the  dedication  was  truly  and  properly  made. 

Besides  the  public  worship  of  the  gods,  to  which  all,  without 
exception,  were  admitted,  there  were  certain  religious  rites  cele- 
brated in  secret  by  the  Greeks,  and  several  eastern  countries,  to 
which  a  small  number  was  allowed  access.  These  were  called 
mysteries;  and  persons  who  desired  an  initiation,  were  obliged 
previously  to  exhibit  satisfactory  proofs  of  their  fidelity  and 
patience,  by  passing  through  various  trials  and  ceremonies  of  the 
most  disagreeable  kind.  The  secret  of  these  mysteries  was  kept 
in  the  strictest  manner,  as  the  initiated  could  not  reveal  anything 
that  cassed  in  them,  without  exposing  their  lives  to  the  most 
imminent  danger. 

These  secret  doctrines  were  taught  in  the  mysteries  of  Eleusis, 
and  in  those  of  Bacchus  and  other  divinities.  But  the  reigning 
religion  was  totally  external.  It  held  out  no  body  of  doctrines, 
no  public  instruction  to  participate  on  stated  days  in  the  esta- 
blished worship.  The  only  faith  required,  was  to  believe  that 
the  gods  exist,  and  reward  virtue,  either  in  this  life  or  in  that 
to  come;  the  only  practice,  to  perform  at  intervals  some  religious 
acts,  such  as  appearing  in  the  solemn  festivals,  and  sacrificing  at 
the  public  altars 

The  spirit  and  genius  of  the  Pagan  religion  was  not  calculated 
to  promote  moral  virtue.  Stately  temples,  expensive  sacrifices, 
pompous  ceremonies,  and  magnificent  festivals,  were  the  objects 


INTRODUCTION.  XV 

presented  to  its  votaries.  But  just  notions  of  God,  obedience 
to  His  moral  laws,  purity  of  heart,  and  sanctity  of  life,  were  not 
once  mentioned -as  ingredients  in  religious  service.  No  repent- 
ance of  past  crimes,  and  no  future  amendment  of  conduct,  were 
ever  prescribed  by  the  Pagans,  as  proper  means  of  appeasing 
their  offended  deities.  Sacrifice  a  chosen  victim,  bow  down 
before  an  hallowed  image,  be  initiated  in  the  sacred  mysteries,— 
and  the  wrath  of  the  gods  shall  be  averted,  and  the  thunder  shall 
drop  from  their  hands. 

The  gods  and  goddesses,  to  whom  public  worship  was  paid, 
exhibited  to  their  adorers  examples  of  egregious  crimes,  rather 
than  of  useful  and  illustrious  virtues.  It  was  permitted  to  con- 
sider Jupiter,  the  father  of  the  gods,  as  an  usurper,  who  expelled 
his  father  from  the  throne  of  the  universe,  and  is,  in  his  turn, 
to  be  one  day  driven  from  it  by  his  son.  The  priests  were  little 
eolicitous  to  animate  the  people  to  virtuous  conduct,  either  by 
precept  or  example.  They  plainly  enough  declared,  that  all 
which  was  essential  to  the  true  worship  of  the  gods,  was  con- 
tained in  the  rites  and  institutions  which  the  people  had  received 
by  tradition  from  their  ancestors.  Hence  the  wiser  part  of  man- 
kind, about  the  time  of  Christ's  birth,  looked  upon  the  whole 
system  of  religion  as  a  just  object  of  ridicule  and  contempt. 

The  consequence  of  this  state  of  theology  was  an  universal 
corruption  of  manners,  which  discovered  itself  in  the  impunity 
of  the  most  flagitious  crimes. 

When  the  Romans  had  subdued  the  world,  they  lost  their  own 
liberty.  Many  vices,  engendered  or  nourished  by  prosperity, 
delivered  them  over  to  the  vilest  of  tyrants  that  ever  afflicted  or 
disgraced  human  nature.  Despotic  power  was  accompanied  with 
all  the  odious  vices  which  are  usually  found  in  its  train,  and  they 
rapidly  grew  to  an  incredible  pitch.  The  colors  are  not  too 
stronsr  which  the  apostle  employs  in  drawing  the  character  of 
that  age,  in  Rom.  i.  21,  22,  etc.,  and  in  Eph.  iv.  17-19. 

At  the  time  of  Christ's  appearance  on  earth,  the  religion  of 
the  Romans,  as  well  as  their  arms,  had  extended  itself  through- 
out a  great  part  of  the  world.  Besides  the  religious  rites,  which 


XVI  INTROLTTCTION. 

Numa  and  others  had  instituted  for  political  views,  the  Romans 
added  several  Italian  and  Etrurian  fictions  to  the  Grecian 
fables,  and  gave  also  to  the  Egyptian  deities  a  place  among  their 
own. 

In  the  provinces  subjected  to  the  Roman  government,  there 
arose  a  new  kind  of  religion,  formed  by  a  mixture  of  the  ancient 
rites  of  the  conquered  nations  with  those  of  the  Romans.  Those 
nations,  who,  before  their  subjection,  had  their  own  gods,  and 
their  own  particular  religious  institutions,  were  persuaded  by 
degrees  to  admit  into  their  worship  a  great  variety  of  the  sacred 
rites  and  customs  of  the  conquerors. 

When,  from  the  sacred  rites  of  the  ancient  Romans,  we  pass 
to  review  the  other  religions  which  prevailed  in  the  world,  it 
will  appear  obvious,  that  the  most  remarkable  may  be  properly 
divided  into  two  classes  —  one  of  which  will  comprehend  the 
religious  systems  which  owe  their  existence  to  political  views; 
and  the  other,  of  those  which  seem  to  have  been  formed  for 
military  purposes.  The  relfgion  of  most  of  the  eastern  nations 
may  be  ranked  in  the  former  class,  especially  that  of  the  Per- 
sians, Egyptians,  and  Indians,  which  appears  to  have  been  solely 
calculated  for  the  preservation  of  the  State,  the  support  of  the 
royal  authority  and  grandeur,  the  maintenance  of  public  peace, 
and  the  advancement  of  civil  virtues.  The  religious  system  of 
the  northern  nations  may  be  comprehended  under  the  military 
class;  since  all  the  traditions  among  the  Germans,  th<>  Bretons, 
the  Celts,  and  the  Goths,  concerning  their  divinities,  have  a 
manifest  tendency  to  excite  and  nourish  fortitude,  ferocity,  an 
insensibility  of  danger,  and  contempt  of  life. 

At  this  time  Christianity  broke  forth  from  the  east  like  a 
rising  sun,  and  dispelled  the  universal  religious  darkness  which 
obscured  every  part  of  the  globe.  "  The  noblest  people,"  says 
J)r.  Robertson,  "that  ever  enteredi  upon  the  stage  of  the  world, 
oppear  to  have  been  only  instruments  in  the  Divine  Hand,  for 
the  execution  of  wise  purposes  concealed  from  themselves.  The 
Roman  ambition  and  bravery  paved  the  way,  and  prepared  the 
world,  for  the  reception  of  the  Christian  doctrine.  They  fought 
»iid  conquered,  that  it  might  triumph  with  the  greater  ease  (see 


INTRODUCTION.  XV11 

Isaiah  x.  7).  By  means  of  their  victories,  the  overruling  pro- 
vidence of  God  established  an  empire,  which  really  possesses 
that  perpetuity  and  eternal  duration  which  they  vainly  arrogated 
to  their  own.  He  erected  a  throne  which  shall  continue  foiever, 
and  of  the  "  increase  of  that  government  there  shall  be  no  end.'' 
It  has  been  mentioned  to  the  honor  of  Christianity,  that  it 
rose  and  flourished  in  a  learned,  inquiring,  and  discerning  age; 
and  made  the  most  rapid  and  amazing  progress  through  the  im- 
mense empire  of  Home,  to  its  remotest  limits,  when  the  world 
was  in  its  most  civilized  state,  and  in  an  age  that  was  universally 
distinguished  for  science  and  erudition. 


SECTION    II. 

STATE  OP  THE  JEWISH  NATION  AT  THE  BIRTH  OP  JESUS  CHRIST 

THE  state  of  the  Jews  was  not  much  better  than  that  of  other 
nations,  at  the  time  of  Christ's  appearance  on  earth.  They  were 
governed  by  Herod,  who  was  himself  tributary  to  the  Roman 
people.  His  government  was  of  the  most  vexatious  and  oppres- 
sive kind.  By  a  cruel,  suspicious,  and  overbearing  temper,  he 
drew  upon  himself  the  aversion  of  all,  not  excepting  those  who 
lived  upon  his  bounty. 

Under  his  administration,  and  through  his  influence,  the 
luxury  of  the  Romans  was  introduced  into  Palestine,  accompa- 
nied with  the  vices  of  that  licentious  people.  In  a  word,  Judea, 
governed  by  Herod,  groaned  under  all  the  corruption  which 
might  be  expected  from  the  authority  and  example  of  a  prince 
who,  though  a  Jew  in  outward  profession,  was,  in  point  of 
morals  and  practice,  a  contemner  of  all  laws,  human  and  divine. 

After  the  death  of  this  tyrant,  the  Romans  divided  the  go- 
vernment of  Judea  between  his  sons.  In  this  division,  one- 
half  the  kingdom  was  given  to  Archelaus,  under  the  title  of 
Exarch.  Archelaus  was  so  corrupt  and  wicked  a  prince,  that  at 
last  both  Jews  and  Samaritans  joined  in  a  petition  against  him 
2*  R 


XVlii  INTRODUCTION. 

to  Augustus,  who  banished  him  from  his  dominions,  about  ten 
years  after  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great.  Judea  was  by  thia 
sentence  reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  and  ordered  to  be  taxed. 

The  governors  whom  the  Romans  appointed  over  Judea,  wer« 
frequently  changed,  but  seldom  for  the  better.  About  the  six- 
teenth year  of  Christ,  Pontius  Pilate  was  appointed  governor, 
the  whole  of  whose  administration,  according  to  Josephus,  was 
one  continual  scene  of  venality,  rapine,  and  of  every  kind  of 
savage  cruelty.  Such  a  governor  was  ill  calculated  to  appease 
the  ferments  occasioned  by  the  late  tax.  Indeed,  Pilate  was  so 
far  from  attempting  to  appease,  that  he  greatly  inflamed  them, 
by  taking  every  occasion  of  introducing  his  standards,  with 
images,  pictures,  and  consecrated  shields,  into  their  city;  and  at 
last  by  attempting  to  drain  the  treasury  of  the  temple,  under 
pretence  of  bringing  an  aqueduct  into  Jerusalem.  The  most 
remarkable  transaction  of  his  government,  however,  was  his  con- 
demnation of  Jesus  Christ;  seven  years  after  which  he  was 
removed  from  Judea. 

However  severe  was  the  authority  which  the  Romans  exercised 
over  the  Jews,  yet  it  did  not  extend  to  the  entire  suppression  of 
their  civil  and  religious  privileges.  The  Jews  were,  in  some 
measure,  governed  by  their  own  laws,  and  permitted  the  enjoy- 
ment of  their  religion.  The  administration  of  religious  ceremo- 
nies was  committed,  as  before,  to  the  high  priest,  and  to  the 
Sanhedrim ;  to  the  former  of  whom  the  order  of  priests  and 
iLevites  was  in  the  usual  subordination;  and  the  form  of  outward 
worship,  except  in  a  very  few  points,  had  suffered  no  visible 
change.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  impossible  to  express  the 
disquietude  and  disgust,  the  calamities  and  vexations,  which  this 
unhappy  nation  suffered  from  the  presence  of  the  Romans,  whom 
their  religion  obliged  them  to  regard  as  a  polluted  and  idolatroua 
people ;  in  a  particular  manner,  from  the  avarice  and  cruelty  of 
the  praetors,  and  the  frauds  and  extortions  of  the  publicans.  So 
that,  all  things  considered,  their  condition,  who  lived  under  the 
government  of  the  other  sons  of  Herod,  was  much  more  sup- 
portable than  the  state  of  those  who  were  immediately  subject 
to  the  Roman  jurisdiction. 


INTRODUCTION.  xix 

It  was  not,  however,  from  the  Romans  only,  that  the  calami- 
tiet  of  this  miserable  people  proceeded.  Their  own  rulers  mul- 
tiplied their  vexations,  and  debarred  them  from  enjoying  any 
Httle  comforts,  which  were  left  them  by  the  Roman  magistrates. 
The  leaders  of  the  people,  and  the  chief  priests,  were,  according 
to  the  account  of  Josephus,  profligate  wretches,  who  had  pur- 
chased their  places  by  bribes,  or  by  other  acts  of  iniquity,  and 
who  maintained  their  ill-acquired  authority  by  the  most  abomi- 
nable crimes.  The  inferior  priests,  and  those  who  possessed  any 
ehadow  of  authority,  were  become  dissolute  and  abandoned  to 
the  highest  degree.  The  multitude,  excited  by  these  corrupt 
examples,  ran  headlong  into  every  kind  of  iniquity;  and  by  their 
endless  seditions,  robberies,  and  extortions,  armed  against  them- 
selves both  the  justice  of  God  and  vengeance  of  man. 

About  the  time  of  Christ's  appearance,  the  Jews  of  that  age 
concluded  the  period  pre-determined  by  God  to  be  then  com- 
pleted, and  that  the  promised  Messiah  would  suddenly  appear. 
Devout  persons  waited  day  and  night  for  the  consolation  of  Israel; 
and  the  whole  nation,  groaning  under  the  Roman  yoke,  and 
stimulated  by  the  desire  of  liberty  or  of  vengeance,  expected 
their  deliverer  with  the  most  anxious  impatience. 

Nor  were  these  expectations  peculiar  to  the  Jews.  By  their 
dispersion  among  so  many  nations ;  by  their  conversation  with 
the  learned  men  among  the  heathens;  and  by  the  translations 
of  their  inspired  writings  into  a  language  almost  universal,  the 
principles  of  their  religion  were  spread  all  over  the  East.  It 
became  the  common  belief,  that  a  Prince  would  arise  at  that 
time  in  Judea,  who  would  change  the  face  of  the  world,  and 
extend  his  .mipire  from  one  end  of  the  earth  to  the  other. 

Two  religions  flourished  at  this  time  in  Palestine ;  the  Jewish 
and  Samaritan.  The  Samaritans  blended  the  errors  of  Paganism 
with  the  doctrines  of  the  Jews.  The  whole  body  of  the  people 
looked  for  a  powerful  and  warlike  deliverer,  who,  they  supposed, 
would  free  them  from  the  Roman  authority.  All  considered  the 
whole  of  religion  as  consisting  in  the  rites  appointed  by  Moses, 
and  in  the  performance  of  some  external  acts  of  duty.  All  were 


XX  INTRODUCTION. 

unanimous  in  excluding  the  other  nations  of  the  world  from  th« 
hopes  of  eternal  life. 

The  learned  among  the  Jews  were  divided  into  a  great  variety 
of  sects.  The  Pharisees,  the  Sadducees,  and  Essenes,  eclipsed 
the  other  denominations. 

The  most  celebrated  of  the  Jewish  sects  was  that  of  the 
Pharisees.  It  is  supposed  by  some,  that  this  denomination  sub- 
sisted about  a  century  and  a  half  before  the  appearance  of  our 
Saviour.  They  separated  themselves  not  only  from  Pagans,  but 
from  all  such  Jews  as  complied  not  with  their  peculiarities. 
Their  separation  consisted  chiefly  in  certain  distinctions  respect- 
ing food  and  religious  ceremonies.  It  does  not  appear  to  have 
interrupted  the  uniformity  of  religious  worship,  in  which  the 
Jews  of  every  sect  seem  to  have  always  united. 

This  denomination,  by  their  apparent  sanctity  of  manners,  had 
rendered  themselves  extremely  popular.  The  multitude,  for  the 
most  part,  espoused  their  interests ;  and  the  great,  who  feared 
their  artifice,  were  frequently  obliged  to  court  their  favor. 
Hence  they  obtained  the  highest  offices  both  in  the  State  and 
priesthood,  and  had  great  weight  both  in  public  and  private 
affairs.  It  appears  from  the  frequent  mention  which  is  made  by 
the  evangelists  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  in  conjunction,  that 
the  greatest  number  of  Jewish  teachers  or  doctors  of  the  law, 
(for  those  were  expressions  equivalent  to  scribe)  were,  at  that 
time,  of  the  Pharisaical  sect. 

The  principal  doctrines  of  the  Pharisees  are  as  follows :  That 
the  oral  law,  which  they  suppose  God  delivered  to  Moses  by  an 
archangel  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  which  is  preserved  by  tradition, 
is  of  equal  authority,  with  the  written  law :  That,  by  observing 
both  these  laws,  a  man  may  not  only  obtain  justification  with 
God,  but  perform  meritorious  works  of  supererogation :  That 
fasting,  alms-giving,  ablutions,  and  confessions,  are  sufficient 
atonements  for  sin :  That  thoughts  and  desires  are  not  sinful,, 
unless  they  are  carriedi  into  action.  This  denomination  acknow- 
ledged the  immortality  of  the  soul,  future  rewards  and  punish- 
ments, the  existence  of  good  and  evil  angels,  and  the  resurrec- 
tioi  of  the  body.  They  maintained  both  the  freedom  of  the 


INTRODUCTION.  XXI 

will  and  absolute  predestination,  and  adopted  the  Pythagoreah 
doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls,  excepting  the  notoriously 
wicked,  whom  they  supposed  consigned  to  eternal  punishment. 

The  peculiar  manners  of  this  sect  are  strongly  marked  in  the 
writings  of  the  evangelists,  and  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of 
th;  Jewish  authors.  They  fasted  the  second  and  fifth  day  of  (he 
week,  and  put  thorns  at  the  bottom  of  their  robes,  that  they 
might  prick  their  legs  as  they  walked.  They  lay  upon  boards 
covered  with  flint  stones,  and  tied  thick  cords  about  their  waists. 
They  paid  tithes  as  the  law  prescribed,  and  gave  the  thirtieth 
and  fiftieth  part  of  their  fruits,  adding  voluntary  sacrifices  to 
those  which  were  commanded.  They  were  very  exact  in  per- 
forming their  vows.  The  Talmudic  books  mention  several 
distinct  classes  of  Pharisees ;  among  whom  were  the  Truncated 
Pharisee,  who,  that  he  might  appear  in  profound  meditation,  as 
if  destitute  of  feet,  scarcely  lifted  them  from  the  ground;  and 
the  Mortar  Pharisee,  who,  that  his  contemplations  might  not  be 
disturbed,  wore  a  deep  cap  in  the  shape  of  a  mortar,  which 
would  only  permit  him  to  look  upon  the  ground  at  his  feet 
Such  expedients  were  used  by  this  denomination  to  captivate  the 
admiration  of  the  vulgar;  and  under  the  appearance  of  singular 
piety,  they  disguised  the  most  licentious  manners. 

The  sect  of  the  Sadducees  derived  its  origin  and  name  from 
one  Sadoc,  who  flourished  in  the  .reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
about  two  hundred  and  sixty-three  years  before  Christ.  The 
chief  heads  of  the  Sadducean  doctrine  are  as  follows :  All  laws 
and  traditions,  not  comprehended  in  the  written  law,  are  to  be 
rejected  as  merely  human  inventions.  Neither  angels  nor  spirits 
have  a  distinct  existence,  separate  from  their  corporeal  vestment. 
The  soul  of  man,  therefore,  expires  with  the  body.  There  will 
be  no  resurrection  of  the  dead,  nor  rewards  and  punishments 
after  this  life.  Man  is  not  subject  to  irresistible  fate,  but  has 
the  framing  of  his  condition  chiefly  in  his  power.  Polygamy 
ought  to  be  practised. 

The  practices  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  were  both  per- 
fectly suitable  to  their  sentiments.  The  former  were  notorious 
hypocrites ;  the  latter,  scandalous  libertines. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  Essenes  were  a  Jewish  sect.  Some  suppose  they  took 
their  rise  from  that  dispersion  of  their  nation,  which  took  place 
after  the  Babylonian  captivity.  They  maintained  that  rewards 
and  punishments  extended  to  the  soul  alone,  and  considered  the 
body  as  a  mass  of  malignant  matter,  and  the  prison  of  the  immor- 
tal spirit.  The  greatest  part  of  this  sect  considered  the  laws  of 
Moses  as  an  allegorical  system  of  spiritual  and  mysterious  truth, 
and  renounced  all  regard  to  the  outward  letter  in  its  explanation. 
The  leading  traits  in  the  character  of  this  sect  were,  that  they 
were  sober,  abstemious,  peaceable  lovers  of  retirement,  and  had 
a  perfect  community  of  goods.  They  paid  the  highest  regard 
to  the  moral  precepts  of  the  law,  but  neglected  the  ceremonial, 
excepting  what  regarded  personal  cleanliness,  the  observation  of 
the  Sabbath,  and  making  an  annual  present  to  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem.  They  commonly  lived  in  a  state  of  celibacy,  and 
adopted  the  children  of  others,  to  educate  them  in  their  own 
principles  and  customs.  Though  they  were,  in  general,  averse 
to  swearing,  or  to  requiring  an  oath,  they  bound  all  whom  they 
initiated  by  the  most  sacred  vows,  to  observe  the  duties  of  piety, 
justice,  fidelity,  and  modesty;  to  conceal  the  secrets  of  the  fra- 
ternity; to  preserve  the  books  of  their  instructors;  and  with 
groat  care  to  commemorate  the  names  of  the  angels. 

Philo  mentions  two  classes  of  Essenes;  one  of  which  followed 
a  practical  institution.  The  other  professed  a  theoretical  institu- 
tion. The  latter,  who  were  called  Theraputse,  placed  their  whole 
felicity  in  the  contemplation  of  the  Divine  nature.  Detaching 
themselves  entirely  from  secular  affairs,  they  transferred  their 
property  to  their  relations  and  friends,  and  retired  to  solitary 
places,  where  they  devoted  themselves  to  an  holy  life.  The 
principal  society  of  this  kind  was  formed  near  Alexandria,  where 
they  lived,  not  far  from  each  other,  in  separate  cottages,  each  of 
which  had  its  own  sacred  apartments,  to  which  the  inhabitants 
retired  for  the  purposes  of  devotion. 

Besides  these  eminent  Jewish  sects,  there  were  several  of 
inferior  note,  at  the  time  of  Christ's  appearance  :  the  Herodians, 
mentioned  by  the  sacred  writers;  and  the  Gaulouites,  bj 
Josephus. 


INTBODUCTION.  XX1U 

The  Herodians  derived  their  name  from  Herod  the  Great. 
Their  distinguishing  tenet  appears  to  be,  that  it  is  lawful,  when 
constrained  by  superiors,  to  comply  with  idolatry  and  with  a 
false  religion.  Herod  seems  to  have  formed  this  sect  on  purpose 
to  justify  himself  in  this  practice,  who,  being  an  Idutnean  by 
ration,  was  indeed  half  a  Jew  and  half  a  Pagan.  He,  during 
his  long  reign,  studied  every  artifice  to  ingratiate  himself  with 
the  emperor,  and  to  secure  the  favor  of  the  principal  personages 
in  the  court  of  Rome.  Josephus  informs  us,  that  his  ambition, 
and  his  entire  devotion  to  C?esar  and  his  court,  induced  him  to 
depart  from  the  usages  of  his  country,  and,  in  many  instances, 
to  violate  its  institutions.  He  built  temples  in  the  Greek  taste, 
and  erected  statues  for  idolatrous  worship,  apologizing  to  the 
Jews  that  he  was  absolutely  necessitated  to  this  conduct  by  the 
superior  powers.  We  tind  the  Sadducees,  who  denied  a  future 
Btate,  readily  embraced  the  tenets  of  this  party :  for  the  same 
persons,  who,  in  one  of  the  gospels,  are  called  Herodians,  are,  in 
another  called  Sadducees. 

The  Gaulonites  were  Galileans,  who  derived  their  name  from 
one  Judas  Theudas,  a  native  of  Gaulon  in  Upper  Galilee,  who, 
in  the  tenth  year  of  Jesus  Christ,  excited  his  countrymen,  the 
Galileans,  and  many  other  Jews,  to  take  arms,  and  venture  upon 
all  extremities,  rather  than  pay  tribute  to  the  Romans.  The 
principles  he  instilled  into  his  party  were,  not  only  that  they 
weru  a  free  nation,  and  ought  not  to  be  in  subjection  to  any 
otlwr;  but  that  they  were  the  elect  of  God;  that  he  alone  was 
their  governor;  and  that,  therefore,  they  ought  not  to  submit  to 
any  ordinance  of  man.  Though  Theudas  was  unsuccessful,  and 
hia  party,  in  their  very  first  attempt,  entirely  routed  and  dis- 
persed, yet,  so  deeply  had  he  infused  his  own  enthusiasm  into 
their  hearts,  that  they  never  rested,  till  in  their  own  destruction, 
Uiey  involved  the  city  and  temple. 

Many  of  the  Jews  were  attached  to  the  oriental  philosophy 
concerning  the  origin  of  the  world.  From  this  source  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Cabala  is  supposed  to  be  derived.  That  considerable 
numbers  of  the  Jews  had  imbibed  this  system,  appears  evident 
boiD  from  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  and  from  the  ancient 


XXIV  INTRODUCTION. 

history  of  the  Christian  church.     It  is  also  certain  that  many  of 
the  Gnostic  sects  were  founded  by  Jews. 

Whilst  the  learned  and  sensible  part  of  the  Jewish  nation  was 
divided  into  a  variety  of  sects,  the  multitude  was  sunk  into  the 
most  deplorable  ignorance  of  religion,  and  had  no  conception  of 
any  other  method  of  rendering  themselves  acceptable  to  God 
than  by  sacrifices,  washings,  and  other  external  rites  and  cere- 
monies of  the  Mosaic  law.  Hence  proceeded  that  dissolutenesa 
of  manners  which  prevailed  among  the  Jews  during  Christ's 
ministry  on  earth.  Hence  also  the  divine  Saviour  compares  the 
people  to  sheep  without  a  shepherd,  and  their  doctors  to  men 
who,  though  deprived  of  sight,  yet  pretended  to  show  the  way 
to  others. 

In  taking  a  view  of  the  corruptions  both  in  doctrine  and  prac- 
tice, which  prevailed  among  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ's 
appearance,  we  find  that  the  external  worship  of  God  was  dis- 
figured by  human  inventions.  Many  learned  men  have  observed 
that  a  great  variety  of  rites  was  introduced  into  the  service  of  tht 
temple,  of  which  no  traces  are  to  be  found  in  the  sacred  writings 
This  was  owing  to  those  revolutions,  which  rendered  the  Jewv 
more  conversant  than  they  had  formerly  been,  with  the  neigh- 
boring nations.  They  were  pleased  with  several  of  the  ceremonies 
which  the  Greeks  and  Romans  used  in  the  worship  of  the  i*agaii 
deities,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  adopt  them  in  the  service  of  the 
true  God,  and  add  them  as  an  ornament  to  the  rites,  which  they 
had  received  by  divine  appointment. 

The  Jews  multiplied  so  prodigiously,  that  the  narrow  bounds 
of  Palestine  were  no  longer  sufficient  to  contain  them.  The> 
poured,  therefore,  their  increasing  numbers  into  the  neighboring 
countries  with  such  rapidity,  that,  at  the  time  of  Christ's  birth, 
there  was  scarcely  a  province  in  the  empire  where  they  were  noi 
found  carrying  on  commerce  and  exercising  other  lucrative  arts. 
They  were  defended  in  foreign  countries  against  injurious  treat- 
ment by  the  special  edicts  of  the  magistrates.  This  was  abso- 
lutely necessary;  since,  in  most  places,  the  remarkable  difference 
of  their  religion  and  manners  from  those  of  other  nations,  ex 
posed  them  to  the  hatred  and  indignation  of  the  ignorant  and 


INTRODUCTION. 

bigoted  multitude.  "  All  this,"  says  Dr.  Mosheim,  "  appears  to 
have  been  most  singularly  and  wisely  directed  by  the  adorable 
hand  of  an  interposing  Providence,  to  the  end,  that  this  people, 
wiich  was  the  sole  depository  of  the  true  religion,  and  of  the 
knowledge  of  one  supreme  God,  being  spread  abroad  through  the 
whole  earth,  might  be  everywhere,  by  their  example,  a  reproach 
to  superstition,  contribute  in  some  measure  to  check  it,  and  thus 
prepare  the  way  for  that  yet  fuller  discovery  of  divine  truth, 
which  was  to  shine  upon  the  world  from  the  ministry  and  gospel 
of  the  Son  of  God." 


SECTION    III. 

AN   ACCOUNT   OF   THE   PHILOSOPHICAL    SYSTEMS   WHICH   WERB 
IN   VOGUE   AT   THE    TIME   OP   CHRIST'S   APPEARANCE. 

AT  the  important  era  of  Christ's  appearance  in  the  world,  two 
kinds  of  philosophy  prevailed  among  the  civilized  nations.  One 
was  the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks,  adopted  also  by  the  Romans; 
and  the  other,  that  of  the  Orientals,  which  had  a  great  number 
of  votaries  in  Persia,  Syria,  Chaldea,  Egypt,  and  even  among 
the  Jews,  The  former  was  distinguished  by  the  simple  title  of 
philosophy.  The  latter  was  honored  by  the  more  pompou8 
appellation  of  science  or  knoicledge  ;  since  those  who  adhered  to 
the  latter  sect  pretended  to  be  the  restorers  of  the  knowledge  of 
God,  which  was  lost  in  the  world.  The  followers  of  both  these 
systems,  in  consequence  of  vehement  disputes  and  dissensions 
about  several  points,  subdivided  themselves  into  a  variety  of  sects. 
It  is,  however,  to  be  observed,  that  all  the  sects  of  the  Oriental 
philosophy  deduced  their  various  tenets  from  one  fundamental 
principle,  which  they  held  in  common;  but  the  Greeks  wera 
much  divided  about  the  first  principles  of  science. 

Amongst  the  Grecian  sects  there  were  some  who  declaimed 
openly  against  religion,  and  denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul; 
and  others,  who  acknowledged  a  Deity,  and  a  state  of  future 
rewards  and  punishments.  Of  the  former  kind  were  the  Epi 
cureans  and  Academics ;  of  the  latter,  the  Platonists  and  Stoics 
I 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  Epicureans  derived  their  name  from  Epicurus,  who  was 
born  in  the  hundred  and  ninth  olympiad,  242  years  before  Christ. 
He  accounted  for  the  formation  of  the  w»rld  in  the  following 
manner :  A  finite  number  of  that  infinite  multitude  of  atoms, 
which,  with  infinite  space,  constitutes  the  universe,  falling  for- 
tuitously into  the  region  of  the  world,  were,  in  consequence  of 
their  innate  motion,  collected  into  one  rude  and  indigested  mass. 
All  tht  various  parts  of  nature  were  formed  by  those  atoms, 
which  were  best  fitted  to  produce  them.  The  fiery  particles 
formed  themselves  into  air ;  and  from  those  which  subsided,  the 
earth  was  produced.  The  mind  or  intellect  was  formed  of  par- 
ticles most  subtle  in  their  nature,  and  capable  of  the  most  rapid 
motion.  The  world  is  preserved  by  the  same  mechanical  causes 
by  which  it  was  framed ;  and  from  the  same  causes  it  will  at  last 
fee  dissolved. 

Epicurus  admitted  that  there  were  in  the  universe  divine 
natures.  But  he  asserted  that  these  happy  and  divine  beings 
did  not  encumber  themselves  with  the  government  of  the  world: 
yet,  on  account  of  their  excellent  nature,  they  are  proper  objects 
of  reverence  and  worship. 

The  science  of  physics  was,  in  the  judgment  of  Epicurus, 
subordinate  to  that  of  ethics;  and  his  whole  doctrine  concerning 
nature  was  professedly  adapted  to  rescue  men  from  the  dominion 
of  troublesome  passions,  and  lay  the  foundation  of  a  tranquil  and 
happy  life.  He  taught,  that  man  is  to  do  everything  for  his  own 
sake ;  that  he  is  to  make  his  own  happiness  his  chief  end,  and 
do  all  in  his  power  to  secure  and  preserve  it.  He  considered 
pleasure  as  the  ultimate  good  of  mankind ;  but  asserts  that  he 
does  not  mean  the  pleasures  of  the  luxurious,  but  principally  the 
freedom  of  the  body  from  pain,  and  of  the  mind  from  anguish 
and  perturbation.  The  virtue  he  prescribes  is  resolved  ultimately 
into  our  private  advantage  without  regard  to  the  excellence  of 
its  own  nature,  or  of  its  being  commanded  by  the  Supreme  Being. 

The  followers  of  Aristotle  were  another  famous  Grecian  sect. 
That  philosopher  was  born  in  the  first  year  of  the  ninety-ninth 
olympiad,  about  384  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 

Aristotle  supposed  the  universe  to  have  existed  from  eternity. 


INTRODUCTION  XXVU 

He  admitted,  however,  the  existence  of  a  deity,  whom  he  styled 
the  first  mover,  and  whose  nature,  as  explained  by  him,  is  some- 
thing like  the  principle  which  gives  motion  to  a  machine.  It  is 
a  nature  wholly  separated  from  matter,  immutable,  and  far 
mperior  to  all  other  intelligent  natures.  The  celestial  sphere, 
which  is  the  region  of  his  residence,  is  also  immutable ;  and 
residing  in  his  first  sphere,  he  possesses  neither  immensity  nor 
Bmnipresence.  Happy  in  the  contemplation  of  himself,  he  is 
entirely  regardless  of  human  affairs.  In  producing  motion,  the 
deity  acts  not  voluntarily,  but  necessarily  ;  not  for  the  sake  of 
other  beings,  but  for  his  own  pleasure. 

Nothing  occurs  in  the  writings  of  Aristotle  which  decisively 
determines  whether  he  supposed  the  soul  of  man  mortal  or 
immortal. 

.Respecting  ethics,  he  taught  that  happiness  consisted  in  the 
rirtuous  exercise  of  the  mind,  and  that  virtue  consists  in  pre- 
serving that  mean  in  all  things  which  reason  and  prudence 
describe.  It  is  the  middle  path  between  two  extremes,  one  of 
which  is  vicious  through  excess,  the  other  through  defect. 

The  Stoics  were  a  sect  of  heathen  philosophers,  of  which  Zeno, 
who  flourished  about  350  years  before  Christ,  was  the  original 
founder.  They  received  their  denomination  from  a  place  in 
which  Zeno  delivered  his  lectures,  which  was  a  portico  at  Athens. 
Their  distinguishing  tenets  were  as  follows :  That  God  is  unde- 
rived,  incorruptible,  and  eternal;  possessed  of  intelligence  and 
goodness ;  the  efficient  cause  of  all  the  qualities  and  forms  of 
things;  and  the  constant  preserver  and  governor  of  the  world. 
That  matter  is  also  underived  and  eternal,  and  by  the  powerful 
energy  of  the  Deity  impressed  with  motion  and  form :  That 
though  God  and  matter  subsisted  from  eternity,  the  present 
regular  frame  of  nature  had  a  beginning,  and  will  have  an  end. 
That  the  element  of  fire  will  at  last,  by  an  universal  conflagration, 
reduce  the  world  to  its  pristine  state.  That  at  this  period  all 
material  forms  are  lost  in  one  chaotic  mass,  all  animated  nature  ia 
reunited  to  the  Deity,  and  matter  returns  to  its  original  form. 
That  from  this  chaotic  state,  however,  it  again  emerges,  by  the 
energy  of  the  efficient  principle;  and  gods  and  men,  and  all 


INTRODUCTION. 

forms  of  regulated  nature,  are  renewed,  to  be  dissolved  and 
renewed  in  endless-  succession.  That  at  the  restoration  of  all 
things,  the  race  of  men  will  return  to  life.  Some  imagined  that 
each  individual  would  return  to  its  former  body;  while  others 
supposed  that  after  the  revolution  of  the  great  year,  similar  souls 
would  be  placed  in  similar  bodies. 

Those  among  the  Stoics  who  maintained  the  existence  of  the 
BOU!  after  death,  supposed  it  to  be  removed  into  the  celestial 
regions  of  the  gods,  where  it  remains,  till,  at  the  general  confla- 
gration, all  souls,  both  human  and  divine,  shall  be  absorbed  in 
the  Deity.  But  many  imagined,  that  before  they  were  admitted 
among  the  divinities,  they  must  purge  away  their  inherent  vices 
and  imperfections  by  a  temporary  residence  in  the  aerial  regions 
between  the  earth  and  the  moon,  or  in  the  moon  itself.  It  was 
supposed  that  depraved  and  ignoble  souls  are  agitated  after  death 
in  the  lower  region  of  the  air  till  the  fiery  parts  are  separated 
from  the  grosser,  and  rise,  by  their  natural  levity,  to  the  orbit 
of  the  moon,  where  they  are  still  further  purified  and  refined. 

According  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Stoics,  all  things  are  subject 
to  an  irresistible  and  irreversible  fatality  :  and  there  is  a  necessary 
chain  of  causes  and  effects,  arising  from  the  action  of  a  power, 
which  is  itself  a  part  of  the  machine  it  regulates,  and  which, 
equally  with  the  machine,  is  subject  to  the  immutable  laws  of 
necessity. 

The  moral  doctrine  of  the  Stoics  depends  upon  the  preceding 
principles.  They  make  virtue  to  consist  in  an  acquiescence  in 
the  immutable  laws  of  necessity,  by  which  the  world  is  governed. 
The  resignation  they  prescribe  appears  to  be  part  of  their  scheoie 
to  raise  mankind  to  that  liberty  and  self-sufficiency  which  it  is 
the  great  end  of  their  philosophy  to  procure.  They  assert  that 
virtue  is  its  own  proper  reward,  and  vice  its  own  punishment; 
that  all  external  things  are  indifferent;  and  that  a  wise  man 
may  be  happy  in  the  midst  of  tortures.  The  ultimate  design  of 
their  philosophy  was  to  divest  human  nature  of  all  passions  and 
affections ;  and  they  make  the  highest  attainments  and  perfection 
of  virtue  to  consist  in  a  total  apathy  and  insensibility  of  human 
evils. 


INTRODUCTION.  XXIX 

The  Platonic  philosophy  is  denominated  from  Plato,  who  was 
born  in  the  eighty-seventh  olympiad,  426  years  before  the 
nativity  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  founded  the  old  academy  on  the 
opinions  of  Heraclitus,  Pythagoras,  and  Socrates;  and  by  adding 
the  information  he  had  acquired  to  their  discoveries,  he  estab- 
lished a  sect  of  philosophers,  who  were  esteemed  more  perfect 
than  those  who  had  before  appeared  in  the  world. 

The  outlines  of  Plato's  philosophical  system  were  as  follows : 
That  there  is  one  God,  an  eternal,  immutable,  and  immaterial 
being,  perfect  in  wisdom  and  goodness,  omniscient  and  omnipre- 
sent. That  this  all-wise  and  perfect  Being  formed  the  universe 
out  of  a  mass  of  pre-existing  matter,  to  which  he  gave  form  and 
arrangement.  That  there  is  in  matter  a  necessary,  but  blind  and 
refractory  force,  which  refits  the  will  of  the  Supreme  Artificer, 
so  that  he  cannot  perfectly  execute  his  designs;  and  this  is  the 
cause  of  the  mixture  of  good  and  evil  which  is  found  in  the 
material  world.  That  the  soul  of  man  was  derived  by  emanation 
from  God ;  but  that  this  emanation  was  not  immediate,  but 
through  the  intervention  of  the  soul  of  the  world,  which  was 
itself  debased  by  some  material  admixture.  That  the  relation 
which  the  human  soul,  in  its  original  constitution,  bears  to 
matter,  is  the  source  of  moral  evil.  That  when  God  formed  the 
universe,  he  separated  from  the  soul  of  the  world  inferior  souls, 
equal  in  number  to  the  stars,  and  assigned  to  each  its  proper 
celestial  abode.  That  these  souls  were  sent  down  to  earth  to  be 
imprisoned  in  mortal  bodies;  hence  proceed  the  depravity  and 
misery  to  which  human  nature  is  liable.  That  the  soul  \a 
immortal;  and  by  disengaging  itself  from  all  animal  passions, 
and  rising  above  sensible  objects  to  the  contemplation  of  tho 
world  of  intelligence,  it  may  be  prepared  to  return  to  its  original 
habitation.  That  matter  never  suffered  annihilation,  but  that 
the  world  will  remain  forever;  but  that  by  the  action  of  its 
miniating  principle,  accomplishes  certain  periods,  within  which 
everything  returns  to  its  ancient  place  and  state.  This  periodical 
revolution  of  nature  is  called  the  Platonic  or  great  year. 

The  Platonic  system  makes  the  perfection  of  morality  to  con- 
sist in  living  in  conformity  to  the  will  of  God,  the  only  author 

3* 


XXX  INTRODUCTION. 

of  true  felicity;  and  teaches  that  our  highest  good  consts-ts  in 
the  contemplation  and  knowledge  of  the  Supreme  Being,  whom 
he  emphatically  styles  tavyaOov,  the  yood.  The  end  of  this 
knowledge  is  to  make  men  resemble  the  Deity  as  much  as  i» 
compatible  with  human  nature.  This  likeness  consists  in  the 
possession  and  practice  of  all  the  moral  virtues. 

After  the  death  of  Plato,  many  of  his  disciples  deviated  from 
his  doctrines.  His  school  was  then  divided  into  the  old.  the 
middle,  and  the  new  academy.  The  old  academy  strictly  adhered 
to  his  tenets.  The  middle  academy  receded  from  his  system 
without  entirely  deserting  it.  The  new  academy,  founded  by 
Carneades,  an  African  by  birth,  almost  entirely  relinquished  the 
original  doctrines  of  Plato,  and  verged  towards  the  sentiments 
which  were  taught  by  the  Skeptic  philosophy. 

The  Skeptic  or  Pyrrhonic  sect  of  philosophers  derive  their 
name  from  Pyrrho,  a  Grecian  philosopher,  who  flourished  at 
Peloponnesus,  in  the  hundred  and  ninth  olympiad.  This  deno- 
mination was  in  little  esteem  till  the  time  of  the  Iloman  empe- 
rors j  then  it  began  to  increase,  and  made  a  considerable  figure. 

Every  advance  which  Pyrrho  made  in  the  study  of  philosophy 
involved  him  in  fresh  uncertainty.  Hence  he  left  the  school  of 
the  dogmatists,  and  established  a  school  of  his  own  on  the 
principles  of  universal  skepticism. 

On  account  of  the  similarity  of  the  opinions  of  this  sect  and 
those  of  the  Platonic  school  in  the  middle  and  new  academy, 
many  of  the  real  followers  of  Pyrrho  chose  to  screen  themselves 
from  the  reproach  of  universal  skepticism  by  calling  themselves 
Academics. 

Pyrrho  and  his  followers  rather  endeavored  to  demolish  every 
other  philosophical  structure  than  to  erect  one  of  their  own 
They  asserted  nothing,  but  proposed  positions  merely  by  way  of 
enunciation,  without  deciding  on  which  side,  in  any  disputed 
question,  the  truth  lay,  or  even  presuming  to  assert  that  out 
proposition  was  more  probable  than  another.  On  the  subject  of 
morals  the  Skeptics  suspended  their  judgment  concerning  the 
ground  of  the  distinction  admitted  by  the  Stoics  and  others, 
things  in  their  nature  good,  evil,  or  indifferent. 


INTRODUCTION.  XXXI 

Tho  chief  points  of  difference  between  the  PyrrhoniHts  and 
Academics  are  these ;  The  Academics  laid  it  down  as  an  axiom, 
that  nothing  can  be  known  with  certainty ;  the  Pyrrhonista 
maintained  that  even  this  ought  not  to  be  positively  asserted. 
The  Academics  admitted  the  real  existence  of  good  and  evilj 
the  Pyrrhonists  suspended  their  judgment  on  this  point.  The 
Academics,  especially  the  followers  of  Carneades,  allowed  different 
degrees  of  probability  in  opinion;  but  the  Skeptics  rejected  all 
speculative  conclusions,  drawn  either  from  the  testimony  of  the 
senses,  or  from  reasoning ;  and  concluded  that  we  can  have  no 
good  ground  for  affirming  or  denying  any  proposition,  or  em- 
bracing any  one  opinion  rather  than  another. 

The  Eclectic  philosophy  was  in  a  flourishing  state  at  Alexandria 
when  our  Saviour  was  upon  earth.  Its  founders  formed  the 
design  of  selecting  from  the  doctrines  of  all  former  philosophers 
such  opinions  as  seemed  to  approach  nearest  the  truth,  and  of 
combining  them  into  one  system.  They  held  Plato  in  the  highest 
esteem ;  but  they  did  not  scruple  to  join  with  his  doctrines 
whatever  they  thought  conformable  to  reason  in  the  tenets  of 
other  philosophers.  Potamo,  a  Platonist,  appears  to  have  been, 
the  first  projector  of  this  plan.  The  Eclectic  system  was  brought 
to  perfection  by  Ammonias  Saccas,  who  blended  Christianity 
with  the  tenets  of  philosophy. 

The  moral  doctrine  of  the  Alexandrian  school  was  as  follows  • 
The  mind  of  man,  originally  a  portion  of  the  Divine  Being, 
having  fallen  into  a  state  of  darkness  and  defilement  by  its  union 
with  the  body,  is  to  be  gradually  emancipated  from  the  chain  of 
matter,  and  rise  by  contemplation  to  the  knowledge  and  vision 
of  God.  The  end  of  philosophy,  therefore,  is  the  liberation  of 
the  soul  from  its  corporeal  imprisonment.  For  this  purpose  the 
Eclectic  philosophy  recommends  abstinence,  with  other  voluntary 
mortifications  and  religious  exercises. 

In  the  infancy  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  not  a  few  of  the 
professors  of  Christianity  were  led,  by  the  pretensions  of  the 
Eclectic  sect,  to  imagine  that  a  coalition  might,  with  great 
advantage,  be  formed  between  its  system  and  that  of  Christianity. 
This  union  appeared  the  more  desirable,  as  several  philosojhew 


XXX11  INTRODUCTION. 

of  this  sect  became  converts  to  the  Christian  faith.  The  conse- 
quence was,  that  Pagan  ideas  and  opinions  were  by  degrees 
mixed  with  the  pure  and  simple  doctrines  of  the  gospel. 

The  Oriental  philosophy  was  popular  in  several  nations  at  the 
time  of  Christ's  appearance.  Before  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era  it  was  taught  in  the  East,  whence  it  gradually 
epread  through  the  Alexandrian,  Jewish,  and  Christian  schools. 

The  Oriental  philosophers  endeavored  to  explain  the  nature 
and  origin  of  all  things  by  the  principle  of  emanation  from  an 
eternal  fountain  of  being.  The  forming  of  the  leading  doctrines 
of  this  philosophy  into  a  regular  system  has  been  attributed  to 
Zoroaster,  an  ancient  Persian  philosopher.  He  adopted  the 
principle  generally  held  by  the  ancients,  that  from  nothing, 
nothing  can  be  produced.  He  supposed  spirit  and  matter,  light 
and  darkness,  to  be  emanations  from  one  eternal  source.  The 
active  and  passive  principles  he  conceived  to  be  perpetually  at 
variance ;  the  former  tending  to  produce  good ;  the  latter,  evil  j 
but  that,  through  the  intervention  of  the  Supreme  Being,  the 
contest  would  at  last  terminate  in  favor  of  the  good  principle. 
According  to  Zoroaster,  various  orders  of  spiritual  beings,  gods, 
or  demons,  have  proceeded  from  the  Deity,  which  are  more  or 
less  perfect,  as  they  are  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  in  the  course 
of  emanation  from  the  eternal  fountain  of  intelligence,  among 
which  the  human  soul  is  a  particle  of  divine  light,  which  will 
return  to  its  source  and  partake  of  its  immortality ;  and  matter 
is  the  last  or  most  distant  emanation  from  the  first  source  of 
being,  which,  on  account  of  its  distance  from  the  fountain  of 
light,  becomes  opaque  and  inert,  and  whilst  it  remains  in  that 
state,  is  the  cause  of  evil;  but,  being  gradually  refined,  it  will 
at  length  return  to  the  fountain  from  whence  it  flowed. 

Those  who  professed  to  bflieve  the  Oriental  philosophy  were 
divided  into  three  leading  aects,  which  were  subdivided  into 
various  factions.  Some  imagined  two  eternal  principles,  from 
whence  all  things  proceeded ;  the  one  presiding  over  light,  the 
other  over  matter,  and,  by  their  perpetual  conflict,  explaining 
the  mixture  of  good  and  evil  that  appears  in  the  universe. 
Others  maintained  that  the  being  which  presided  over  matter 


INTRODUCTION, 

Tras  not  an  eternal  principle,  but  a  subordinate  intelligence,  one 
of  those  whom  the  supreme  God  produced  from  himself.  They 
supposed  that  this  being  was  moved  by  a  sudden  impulse  to 
reduce  to  order  the  rude  mass  of  matter  which  lay  excluded 
from  the  mansions  of  the  Deity,  and  also  to  create  the  human 
race.  A  third  sect  entertained  the  idea  of  a  triumvirate  of 
beings,  in  which  the  supreme  deity  was  distinguished  both  from 
the  material  evil  principle,  and  from  the  Creator  of  this  sub- 
lunary world.  That  these  divisions  did  really  subsist,  is  evident 
from  the  hiutory  of  the  Christian  sects  which  embraced  thia 
philosophy. 

From  blending  the  doctrines  of  the  Oriental  philosophy  with 
Christianity,  the  Gnostic  sects,  which  were  so  numerous  in  the 
first  centuries,  derive  their  origin.  Other  denominations  arose, 
which  aimed  to  unite  Judaism  with  Christianity.  Many  of  the 
Pagan  philosophers,  who  were  converted  to  the  Christian  religion, 
exerted  all  their  art  and  ingenuity  to  accommodate  the  doctrines 
of  the  gospel  to  their  own  schemes  of  philosophy.  In  each  age  of 
the  church  new  systems  were  introduced,  till,  in  process  of  time, 
we  find  the  Christian  world  divided  into  that  prodigious  variety 
of  sentiment  which  is  exhibited  in  the  following  pages.* 

*  For  the  above  introduction,  we  are  indebted  to  Mies  Haiw»k  Adiuna 
«Vi"w  of  Religions."— ED. 


HISTORY  OF  RELIGIONS. 


BAPTISTS. 

THE  members  of  this  denomination  are  distinguished 
from  all  other  professing  Christians,  by  their  opinions  re- 
specting the  ordinance  of  Christian  Baptism.  Conceiving 
that  positive  institutions  cannot  be  established  by  analogi- 
cal reasoning,  but  depend  on  the  will  of  the  Saviour,  re- 
vealed in  express  precepts,  and  that  apostolical  example 
illustrative  of  this  is  the  rule  of  duty,  they  differ  from 
their  Christian  brethren  with  regard  both  to  the  subjects 
and  the  mode  of  baptism. 

With  respect  to  the  subjects,  from  the  command  which 
Christ  save  after  his  resurrection,  and  in  which  baptism  is 
mentioned  as  consequent  to  faith  in  the  gospel,  they  con- 
ceive them  to  be  those,  and  those  only,  who  believe  what 
the  apostles  were  then  enjoined  to  preaoh. 

With  respect  to  the  mode,  they  affirm  that,  instead  of 
sprinkling  or  pouring,  the  person  ought  to  be  immersed  in 
the  water,  referring  to  the  primitive  practice,  and  observ- 
ing that  the  baptizer  as  well  as  the  baptized  having  gone 
down  into  the  water,  the  latter  is  baptized  in  it,  and  both 
come  up  out  of  it.  They  say  that  John  baptized  in  the 
Jordan^  and  that  Jesus,  after  being  baptized,  came  up  out 

(35) 


36  BAPTISTS. 

of  it.  Believers  are  also  said  to  be  buried  with  Christ  by 
baptism  into  death,  wherein  also  they  are  raised  with  him  • 
a  doctrinal  allusion,  incompatible  with  any  other  mode. 
Bom.  vi.  4,  Col.  ii,  12.  For  baptism  here  appears  as  an 
appointed  and  expressive  emblem  of  the  death  of  Christ, 
through  which  our  sins  are  remitted  tor  washed  away,  and 
of  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  through  which  the  Holy 
Spirit  confers  upon  us  a  new  spiritual  life,  in  which  every 
true  believer  enters  into  fellowship  with  him.  In  other 
words,  Christian  baptism  is  a  figurative  representation  of 
that,  which  the  Gospel  of  Christ  is  in  testimony.  To  this, 
therefore,  the  mind  of  the  baptized  believer  is  naturally 
led,  and  every  spectator  in  like  manner  is  impressed  with 
the  gospel,  not  only  as  truth,  but  life,  derived  by  faith 
from  the  crucified  and  glorified  Redeemer.  The  Baptists, 
therefore,  think  that  none  ought  to  be  baptized,  but  such 
as  with  all  their  heart  believe  the  gospel,  and  that  immer- 
sion is  not  properly  a  mode  of  baptism,  but  baptism  itself. 
Holding  convictions  at  once  so  clear  and  sacred,  drawn 
from  the  very  fountain  of  truth,  the  Baptists,  while  diftbr- 
ing  from  other  Christians,  disclaim  the  spirit  of  schism. 
Feeling  the  authority  of  the  Great  Commission,  which  re- 
mains unchanged  to  the  end  of  the  world,  they  aim  to 
carry  out  all  its  parts  in  the  prescribed  order,  with  the 
fidelity  of  a  good  conscience,  as  under  law  to  Christ,  and 
responsible  alone  to  Him,  on  whose  promised  presence 
and  aid  they  humbly  rely.  Matt,  xxviii:  19,20.  They  pro 
fess  to  love  all  Christians  as  brethren ;  but  they  own  no 
other  Master  than  Christ ;  no  other  law  in  religion  than  his 
word ;  no  baptism  but  that  which  is  hallowed  by  faith  ;  no 
church,  but  that  which  is  the  living  body  of  Christ,  per- 
vaded and  animated  by  his  Spirit.  Neither  birth,  nor  age, 
nor  sex,  nor  nation,  nor  condition,  in  their  view,  can  qualify 
for  Christian  ordinances,  but  the  faith  that  worketh  by  love, 


BAPTISTS.  37 

and  which  naturally  unfolds  in  obedience  to  all  things 
whatsoever  Christ  has  commanded. 

As  to  Church  organization  and  government,  Baptists 
believe  in  the  spiritual  Unity  of  the  Church,  the  collective 
body  of  believers,  of  which  Christ  is  the  head.  This 
unity  it  is  a  duty  to  preserve  and  cherish,  by  subjection  to 
Him  in  all  things.  Local  churches,  composed  of  believers 
in  a  particular  place,  who,  being  duly  baptized,  are  em- 
bodied by  mutual  consent,  under  the  law  of  Christ,  for 
extending  his  kingdom,  are  the  first  scriptural  means  of 
manifesting  this  spiritual  unity.  The  government  of 
these  churches  is  congregational ;  that  is  to  say,  being 
immediately  dependent  on  Christ,  they  are  severally  in. 
dependent  of  all  other  authority  as  churches ;  though  as 
citizens,  individually  subject  to  the  civil  power,  and  loyal 
in  its  support.  Each  church  is  completely  competent  to 
manage  its  internal  affairs,  such  as  the  choice  of  officers 
reception,  dismission,  or  discipline  of  members.  Here  is 
the  only  tribunal  in  which  Christ  presides,  ratifying  in 
heaven  what  is  done  according  to  his  will  on  earth.  But 
this  principle  of  local  church  independence  is  not  held  by 
Baptists  as  a  law  of  isolation,  for  it  is  balanced  by  the 
principle  of  intercommunion  between  the  churches,  which 
binds  them  into  one.  This  intercommunion  is  the  highest 
form  of  visible  unity,  and  is  never  without  necessity  to  be 
interrupted.  On  this  principle,  Baptist  churches  associate 
for  the  accomplishment  of  all  common  ends,  and  especially 
for  diffusing  the  gospel  throughout  the  world.  Councils 
also  are  called  to  advise  and  assist  in  the  formation  of 
churches,  the  ordination  of  ministers,  and  the  settlement 
of  any  serious  difficulties ;  but  these  councils  are  strictly 
such,  having  no  judicial  or  appellate  powers.  They  are 
composed  of  both  ministers  and  laymen ;  between  whom 
there  is  no  distinction,  but  that  of  office.  Ministers  are 

4 


38  BAPTISTS. 

ordained,  both  as  evangelists  and  pastors,  and  deacon? 
also,  after  due  examination,  by  prayer  and  the  laying  on 
of  hands  in  solemn  benediction.  There  are  no  higher 
officers  recognized  than  these — no  prelacy,  no  hierarchy- 
all  pastors  are  equally  bishops,  in  their  sacred  charge  of 
the  flock  of  Christ. 

The  Baptists  are  zealous  friends  of  ministerial  educa- 
tion, as  their  numerous  Colleges  and  Theological  Semina- 
ries show  ;  but  they  do  not  regard  such  education  as  in- 
dispensable to  the  Christian  ministry,  where  all  the  scrip- 
tural qualifications  are  found ;  as  in  John  Bunyan  and 
Andrew  Fuller,  who  are  among  their  brightest  ornaments. 
Dr.  Spragrue's  volume  on  the  "  Baptist  Pulpit,"  is  a 
monument  of  their  eminent  men,  from  the  foundation  of 
this  country.  Dr.  Baird,  also,  in  his  great  work  on 
"Religion  in  America,"  has  said:  "  The  ministry  of  the 
Baptists  comprehends  a  body  of  men,  who  in  point  of 
talent,  learning,  and  eloquence,  as  well  as  in  devoted 
piety,  have  no  superiors  in  the  country."  Through  their 
labors,  accompanied  by  the  Divine  blessing,  the  Baptists 
are  now,  with  a  single  exception,  the  largest  denomination 
of  Christians  in  the  United  States,  being  spread  through 
every  State  and  Territory,  and  growing  at  a  rate  which 
outstrips  the  rapid  growth  of  population.  This  fact  is  the 
more  remarkable,  as  they  are  less  indebted  to  emigration 
from  Europe  than  most  other  denominations  ;  discard  on 
principle  infant  baptism  and  birth-right  membership, 
as  incompatible  with  the  genius  of  Christianity,  and 
depend  on  the  powe:.  of  truth  and  the  Holy  Spirit  alonu 
for  the  vital  increase  of  thoir  churches.  It  is  the  more 
remarkable  still,  because  on  all  sides  they  are  reproached 
for  their  strictness  of  practice  on  Church  communion  ;  as 
they  think,  reproached  wrongfully.  A  few  words  there- 
fore may  be  necessary  on  this  point. 


BAPTISTS.  39 

Baptists  believe  that,  according  to  the  scriptures,  the 
Holy  Supper  is  a  church  ordinance,  intended  to  express 
their  common  fellowship  with  Christ,  as  the  source  arid 
support  of  spiritual  life;  and  that  each  church  must 
therefore  judge  for  itself  on  its  responsibility  to  Christ,  of 
the  scriptural  qualifications  of  all  who  apply  for  admission 
In  requiring  baptism  and  church  fellowship  among  these 
qualifications,  they  agree  with  almost  all  Christians  in 
every  age  and  country  ;  they  differ  only  in  their  views 
of  baptism.  If  their  views  of  baptism  are  correct,  they 
are  bound  to  apply  them  impartially  to  all  who  apply  for 
admission  to  communion.  The  very  fact  that  it  is  the 
Lord's  table,  and  not  their  own,  forbids  them,  even  if 
they  would,  from  changing  at  their  pleasure  the  divine  laws 
of  approaching  it.  All  who  agree  with  them  are  wel- 
come to  come  ;  those  who  do  not,  and  cannot  with  a  good 
conscience,  are  at  perfect  liberty  to  join  elsewhere.  Hard 
cases  may  arise  with  individuals,  but  the  churches  are 
not  responsible.  The  right  of  private  judgment  is  sacred, 
but  it  is  equally  so  on  both  sides ;  and  the  conscience  of 
she  individual  cannot  over-ride  the  conscience  of  the 
church  ;  for  the  fellowship  of  the  Spirit  cannot  be  forced. 
These  views,  so  far  from  being  narrow  and  bigoted,  as 
some  suppose,  the  Baptists  believe  to  present  the  only 
true  solution  of  this  question  of  conscience,  when  viewed 
in  its  broadest  aspect,  and  in  the  spirit  of  brotherly  love. 
The  strictest  Baptists  therefore  claim,  that  their  commu- 
nion, in  any  proper  use  of  the  term,  is  free.  A  laxer  and 
less  consistent  view  obtains  to  some  extent  among  Bap- 
tists in  England  ;  but  as  it  rests  on  no  scriptural  precept 
or  practice,  it  is  regarded  by  Baptists  in  the  United  States 
as  a  perilous  anomaly,  to  be  avoided  rather  than  imitated. 
Not  one  of  their  twelve  thousand  churches  indorses  it 
not  because  they  do  not  love  and  esteem  other  Christiana 


40  BAPTISTS. 

but  because  love  to  their  brethren  must  be  regulated  in 
its  manifestations  by  the  word  of  God.  By  this  ive  know 
that  we  love  the  children  of  God,  when  we  love  Gfod  and  keep 
his  commandments.  1  John  v.  2. 

It  is  this  clear  conviction  of  the  truth  and  equity  of  their 
principles,  that  has  made  the  Baptists  the  pioneers  of  re- 
ligious liberty  in  its  full  extent,  both  in  the  Old  World 
and  in  the  New.  Before  William  Penn,  before  Lord 
Baltimore,  before  Jeremy  Taylor,  Milton,  or  Locke,  even 
before  William  I.  of  Orange,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
their  clear  testimony  is  on  record.  And  theirs  is  the  high 
honor  of  establishing  in  the  little  colony  of  Ehode  Island, 
in  1636,  the  first  civil  government  in  modern  times  which 
declared  that  conscience  should  be  free  ;  in  which  noble 
declaration,  fifty  years  later,  they  were  followed  by  the 
Friends,  of  Pennsylvania ;  and  since  the  Revolution  of 
1776,  by  all  the  United  States.  This  honor  history  now 
awards  them.  But  how  few  know  what  toils  and  sacrifices, 
what  vigilance,  patience,  prayers,  tears  and  blood,  it  cost 
the  Baptists  to  win  this  boon  of  freedom  for  all  mankind. 

As  will  be  evident  from  the  above  exposition  of  their 
principles,  the  Baptists  claim  their  origin  from  the  minis- 
try of  Christ  and  his  Apostles.  They  further  claim,  that 
all  the  Christian  churches  of  the  first  two  centuries  after 
Christ,  were  founded  and  built  up  upon  these  principles  ; 
in  proof  of  which  they  appeal  to  the  highest  authorities 
in  church  history,  such  as  Mosheim  and  Neander.  Amid 
the  growing  defection  of  later  times,  they  claim  to  be  able 
to  trace  their  history  in  a  succession  of  pure  churches, 
under  various  names,  down  to  the  Reformation  of  the  six 
teenth  century.  From  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  these 
churches  became  the  objects  of  relentless  persecution  • 
but  though  persecuted,  they  were  not  forsaken  ;  though 
scattered,  not  destroyed  ;  a  bush  forever  burning,  but  un- 


BAPTISTS.  4"t 

consumed.  The  seeds  of  their  principles  had  long  been 
sown  throughout  Europe ;  the  Waldenses  had  held  them 
fast ;  the  Paterines  suffered  for  them ;  the  Lollards  dif- 
fused them ;  Wickliffe  embraced  them.  At  the  first 
dawn  of  the  Reformation,  they  emerged  on  all  sides,  and 
after  fifty  years  of  unparalleled  suffering,  from  Eomanista 
and  Protestants  alike,  at  last  found  protection  under  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  the  founder  of  the  Dutch  Republic. 
They  were  called  indiscriminately  Anabaptists,  (or  Re- 
baptizers, )  but  they  of  course  disowned  the  name,  as  in- 
compatible with  their  principles,  and  still  more,  as  dis- 
graced by  a  small  party  of  fanatics  in  Munster,  with 
whom  they  had  not  the  slightest  identity  or  connection, 
What  the  main  body  really  were,  and  how  they  bore 
their  terrible  sufferings,  let  Cardinal  Hosius,  President  of 
the  Council  of  Trent,  testify:  "If  you  behold  their  cheer- 
fulness in  suffering  persecution,  the  Anabaptists  run 
before  all  the  heretics,  (i.  e.  Protestants.)  If  you  have  re- 
gard to  the  number,  it  is  likely  that  they  would  swarm 
above  all  others,  if  they  were  not  grievously  plagued  and 
cut  off  by  the  knife  of  persecution.  If  you  have  an  eye 
to  the  outward  appearance  of  godliness,  both  the  Luthe- 
rans and  the  Zuinglians  must  needs  grant  that  they  far 
pass  them.  If  you  will  be  moved  by  the  boasting  of  the 
word  of  God,  these  be  no  less  bold  than  Calvin  to  preach  ; 
and  their  doctrine  must  stand  aloft  above  all  the  glory  of 
the  world,  must  stand  invincible  above  all  power,  because 
it  is  not  their  word,  but  the  word  of  the  living  God." 

If  there  be  a  tinge  of  irony  in  the  last  sentence,  there 
is  certainly  none  in  the  honorable  testimony  to  the  an- 
tiquity of  the  Baptists,  in  the  following  passage  from  the 
"  History  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  the  Netherlands," 
by  Drs.  Ypeig  and  Derrnout,  clergymen  of  the  high- 
est standing  in  that  church,  and  published  in  Breda, 

4* 


42  BAPTISTS. 

in  1819.  "  "We  have  now  seen  that  the  Baptists,  who  were 
formerly  called  Anabaptists,  and  in  later  times  Mennonites, 
were  the  original  Waldenses,  and  have  long,  in  the  history 
of  the  church  received  the  honor  of  that  origin.  On  this 
account  the  Baptists  may  be  considered  as  the  only  Chris- 
tian community  which  has  stood  since  the  days  of  the 
Apostles  ;  and  as  a  Christian  society  which  has  preserved 
pure  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  through  all  ages." 

In  regard  to  the  value  of  religious  forms,  this  body  of 
Cnristians  seem  to  hold  a  middle  place  between  the  Ro- 
man Catholics,  who  multiply  them  at  will,  and  magnify 
their  efficacy  to  salvation,  and  the  Friends,  or  Quakers, 
who  discard  them  altogether  as  inconsistent  with  a  spirit- 
ual religion.  In  opposition  to  the  first  view,  the  Baptists 
hold  that  no  forms  but  those  of  scriptural  institution  are 
valid,  thus  repudiating  all  traditions  of  men;  and  in  refer- 
ence to  those  of  Divine  institution,  the  sacraments  of 
Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  that  they  have  no  inhe- 
rent virtue,  or  saving  efficacy  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  inde- 
pendent of  the  receiver's  faith.  In  opposition  to  the 
Quaker  view,  the  Baptists  hold  that  the  reception  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  though  essential  to  spiritual  religion,  does 
not  make  void  the  authority  of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper,  or  supersede  their  value  as  the  appointed  expres- 
sions and  auxiliaries  of  faith ;  and  they  particularly 
point  to  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  in  the  house  of 
Cornelius,  at  Cesarea,  in  proof;  where  Peter,  full  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  himself,  said,  Can  any  man  forbid  water,  thai 
these  should  not  be  baptized,  who  have  received  tlie  Holy  Ghost 
as  well  as  we  ?  And  lie,  commanded  them  to  be  baptized  in 
the  name  of  the  Lord.  (Acts  x.  47,  48.) 

Instead  of  magnifying  the  efficacy  of  Baptism  and 
making  it  a  saving  ordinance,  the  Baptists  affirm  that 
they  make  less  of  it  than  most  religious  denominations; 


BAPTISTS.  43 

for  they  believe  that  infants  are  saved  without  it;  in 
proof  of  which,  they  adduce  the  fact  that  Christ  blessed 
little  children,  without  baptizing  them.  Baptism  (mean- 
ing immersion)  is  in  their  view  but  the  symbol  of  faith, 
and  it  saves  us,  as  Peter  says,  only  in  a  figure,  or  so  fai 
'  only  as  it  is  the  answer  of  a  good  conscience  toiuard  God. 

In  their  doctrine,  the  Baptists  are  in  a  high  degree 
evangelical,  holding  the  views  commonly  called  Calvinis- 
tic,  as  set  forth  in  the  writings  of  Bunyan,  Gill,  and 
Fuller.  The  Confessions  of  1643,1689,  1742,  an.l  1833, 
are  all  in  harmony,  differing  only  in  the  choice  of  lan- 
guage and  fulness  of  exposition.  These  Confessions  are 
never  regarded  as  binding  creeds. 

There  is  a  close  affinity  between  the  Baptists  and  the 
Congregutionalists,  and  they  are  divided  only  on  the  point 
of  baptism.  The  late  Dr.  Woods,  of  Andover,  Mass.,  in 
1854:,  thus  expresses  his  views  of  this  affinity  :  "  For  my- 
self, I  entertain  feelings  of  the  most  cordial  esteem,  love 
and  confidence,  toward  the  Baptists  as  a  denomination. 
I  have  had  the  freest  intercourse  and  the  sincerest  friend- 
ship with  Baptist  ministers,  theological  students,  and  pri- 
vate Christians.  And  I  have  wished  that  our  denomina- 
tion was  as  free  from  erratic  speculations,  and  as  well 
grounded  in  the  doctrines  and  experimental  principles  of 
the  Puritans  as  the  Baptists.  It  seems  to  me  that  they 
are  the  Christians  who  are  likely  to  maintain  pure  Chris- 
tianity, and  to  hold  fast  the  form  of  sound  words ;  while 
many  of  our  denomination  are  rather  loose  in  their 
opinions,  and  are  trying  to  introduce  innovations  into 
the  system  of  evangelical  doctrines.  And  I  think  that 
Congregationalists  in  general  regard  the  Baptists  much 
as  I  do,  though  it  may  be  that  my  better  acquaintance 
with  them  has  led  me  to  esteem  them  more  highly  than 
some  of  my  brethren  do."  See  COXGREGATIOXALISTS. 


44  BAPTISTS. 

The  Baptist  "  Missionary  Union,"  from  it?  origin  m 
Dr.  Judson's  change  of  views  on  baptism,  as  well  as 
from  tho  common  aim  of  its  endeavors,  is  in  cor- 
dial sympathy  with  the  "American  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners for  Foreign  Missions"  established  by  the  Congrc 
gutionalists  in  1810.  The  following  comparative  tabla 
of  their  successful  operations,  drawn  up  from  the  reports 
of  the  two  societies  in  1866,  will  be  found  of  great  value 
and  interest.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  figures  of 
the  American  Board,  except  in  the  item  of  schools  and 
scholars,  include  the  returns  from  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
and  the  figu^s  of  the  Missionary  Union  include  all  their 
European  missions,  from  which  no  schools  are  reported. 

American  Missionary 

Board.  Uniou. 

Date  of  organization June,  1810 May,  1SU. 

Income  the  past  year $446,942  44  $175,354  32 

Expenditures 440,27547  173,48457 

Missions  now  maintained 20  ....  19 

Stations  and  out-stations 526  ....  1700 

Missionaries,  male  and  female. .  312  ....  84 

Native  helpers 815  ....  700 

Churches 194  487 

Members  added  last  year 1119  ....  2(572 

Total  present  members 23,240  36.000 

Schools  of  all  kinds 428  157 

Total  number  of  scholars 10,901  321)5 

Printing  establishments 2  ....  1 

Pages  printed  last  year 13,659,826  4,375,950 

The  strength  of  the  American  Board  in  its  resources, 
its  missionary  force,  its  vigorous  schools,  of  which  sixteen 
are  theological  and  training  schools,  and  its  multiplica- 
tion of  books,  is  very  manifest  from  this  table.  The  Mis- 
sionary Union's  more  exclusive  attention  to  simple  evan- 
gelization, with  much  less  income  and  fewer  missionaries, 
is  alfo  evident  in  its  appropriate  fruits.  God's  blessing 
has  rested  richly  upon  both.  A  like  blessing  has  at- 


BAPTISTS.  45 

tended  their  labors  in  Home  Missions,  as  might  be  shown 
if  the  figures  were  at  hand.  The  Baptists  have  indeed 
spread  far  more  widely,  and  gathered  converts  more  rap- 
idly ;  from  a  much  smaller  beginning,  now  outnumbering 
the  Congregationalists  in  this  country  fourfold.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  Congregationalists,  with  a  narrower 
field,  have  cultivated  it  more  richly.  At  present  there 
is  a  sort  of  interchange  in  the  character  of  their  home 
labors,  the  Baptists  devoting  themselves  to  a  higher  cul- 
ture, and  their  Congregational  brethren  to  a  more  ener- 
getic effort  of  expansion.  Their  history,  too,  both  in 
England  and  in  this  country,  has  flowed  on  in  parallel 
streams,  and  the  waters  have  often  intermingled.  The 
great  names  that  adorn  them  are  alike  dear  to  both,  and 
it  may  be  hoped  time  will  cement  and  perfect  the  union. 
The  unity  of  the  Baptist  denomination,  which  is  almost 
equally  spread  over  all  the  United  States,  does  not  consist 
in  any  external  bond  of  authority  distinct  from  the  Bible, 
but  in  the  internal  fellowship  of  the  churches  and  mem- 
bers in  "  one  Lord,  one  faith,  and  one  baptism."  (Eph. 
iv.  6.)  It  was  formerly  expressed  also  by  free  co-opera 
tion  in  the  same  general  missionary  and  benevolent  socie- 
ties. This  was  gradually  interrupted,  as  in  other  de- 
nominations, by  the  different  position  of  the  North  and 
the  South  on  the  questions  of  slavery  and  of  secession, 
which  culminated  in  the  civil  war  of  1861.  As  early  as 
1845,  the  Southern  Baptists,  partly  from  the  wish  to  avoid 
agitation,  and  partly  from  the  desire  to  engage  their 
members  more  fully  in  the  missionary  enterprise  by  con- 
centrated action,  withdrew,  and  organized  separate  gen- 
eral societies  for  the  South,  which  still  continue  in  opera- 
tion, though  greatly  crippled  by  the  war.  The  general 
societies  for  benevolent  effort  at  the  North  were  never  so 
euergetiCy  so  well  sustained,  or  so  successful,  as  at  the 


46  EPISCOPALIANS.  ' 

present.  Since  secession  and  slavery  have  now  passed 
away,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  time  will  restore  a  more  per- 
fect internal  fellowship  than  before,  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment principles  of  equity,  loyalty,  and  love. 

The  changes  created  by  the  war  in  the  Southern  States 
make  it  impossible  to  obtain  complete  returns  of  Bap- 
tist communicants.  The  Baptist  Year  Book  gives  the 
total  North  and  South  for  1870  as  799  Associations, 
17,745  Churches,  10,818  ordained  ministers;  77,795  bap- 
tized within  the  year,  and  1,419,493  communicants. 
Grand  total  for  North  America,  including  the  British 
colonies,  1,464,638.  If  the  minor  sects  of  Baptists,  of  all 
sorts,  are  added,  the  whole  amounts  to  2,075,000.  ropula- 
tion  about  10,500,000.  Baptist  Colleges,  29;  Theological 
Seminaries,  9 ;  Academies  and  high  schools  for  both  sexes 
about  100 ;  periodical  organs,  48. 


EPISCOPALIANS; 

OR, 

PROTESTANT   EPISCOPAL   CHURCH. 

THE  denomination  of  Christians  called  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  had  its  origin  in  England,  where  it  is 
called  the  Church  of  England. 

The  king  is  the  supreme  head ;  by  this  authority  he 
convenes  and  prorogues  the  convocations  of  the  clergy. 
The  church  is  governed  by  two  archbishops  and  twenty- 
five  bishops. 

The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  is  styled  the  Primate 
of  all  England,  and  to  him  belongs  the  privilege  of  crown 
ing  the  kings  and  queens  of  England.    The  province  of 


EPISCOPALIANS.  41 

Canterbury  comprehends  twenty-one  bishoprics.  In  the 
province  of  the  Archbishop  of  York,  who  is  called  the 
Primate  of  England,  there  are  four  bishoprics. 

Archbishops  and  bishops  are  appointed  by  the  king,  by 
what  is  called  a  congk  d'elire,  or  leave  to  elect,  which  is 
Bent  to  the  dean  and  chapter,  naming  the  person  to  be 
ciiosen. 

The  bishop  of  London,  as  presiding  over  the  capital, 
has  the  precedence  of  all  the  others.  The  Bishop  of  Dur- 
ham has  certain  prerogatives,  as  presiding  over  a  see  that 
constitutes  a  county  palatine ;  the  Bishop  of  Winchester 
is  third  in  dignity ;  the  others  take  rank  according  to 
seniority  of  consecration.  The  archbishops  and  bishopa 
(except  the  Bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man)  have  seats  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  are  styled  the  spiritual  lords. 

The  archbishops  have  the  title  of  grace,  and  most  reve- 
rend father  in  Gfod,  by  divine  providence;  bishops  are 
addressed  by  the  title  of  lord,  and  right  reverend  father 
in  Grod,  by  divine  permission.  The  former  are  said  to  be 
enthroned,  the  latter  installed. 

To  every  cathedral  belong  several  prebendaries  and  a 
dean,  who  form  the  dean  and  chapter,  or  council  of  the 
bishop.  The  next  order  of  the  clergy  is  that  of  arch- 
deacons ;  their  number  is  sixty ;  their  office  is  to  reform 
abuses,  and  to  induct  into  benefices. 

The  most  numerous  and  laborious  order  of  the  clergy 
are  the  deacons,  curates,  vicars,  and  rectors.  The  office 
of  the  deacon  is  confined  to  baptism,  reading  in  the  church, 
and  assisting  the  priest  at  the  communion. 

A  parson  is  one  who  has  full  possession  of  all  the  rights 
of  a  parish  church ;  if  the  great  tithes  are  im preprinted, 
the  priest  is  called  a  vicar ;  if  not,  a  rector :  a  curate  is 
one  who  is  not  instituted  to  the  cure  of  souls,  but  exercises 
the  spiritual  office  in  a  parish  under  a  rector  or  vicar. 


18  EPISCOPALIANS. 

The  convocation  of  the  clergy,  which  is  the  highest 
ecclesiastical  court,  has  not  been  permitted  by  government 
to  do  any  business  since  1717,  and  is  merely  convened  as 
a  matter  of  form.  The  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  England 
are  contained  in  the  thirty-nine  articles ;  the  form  of  wor- 
ehip  is  directed  by  a  liturgy. 

The  first  steps  to  the  establishment  of  the  English 
Church  were  slow.  It  retained  at  first  many  of  the  fea- 
tures of  the  Roman  Church,  both  in  regard  to  doctrine 
and  rites. 

After  the  parliament  had  declared  Henry  VIII.  the  only 
fiupreme  head  of  the  Church,  and  the  convocation  of  the 
clergy  had  voted  that  the  Bishop  of  Home  had  no  more 
jurisdiction  in  England  than  any  other  foreign  bishop,  the 
articles  of  faith  of  the  new  Church  were  declared  to  con- 
sist in  the  Scriptures  and  the  three  creeds,  the  Apostolic, 
the  Nicene,  and  the  Athanasian ;  the  real  presence,  the 
use  of  images,  the  invocation  of  saints,  &c  ,  wero  still 
maintained. 

Under  Edward  the  new  liturgy  was  composed  wi  English, 
and  took  the  place  of  the  old  mass ;  the  doctrines  were 
also  stated  in  forty-two  articles.  With  the  reign  of  Mary, 
the  old  religion  was  re-established ;  and  it  was  not  till  that 
of  Elizabeth  that  the  Church  of  England  was  finally  insti- 
tuted. As  no  change  was  made  in  the  episcopal  form  of 
government,  and  some  rites  and  ceremonies  were  retained 
which  many  of  the  Reformed  considered  as  superstitious, 
this  circumstance  gave  rise  to  many  future  dissensions. 

The  controversy  concerning  the  ceremonial  part  of 
divine  worship  commenced  with  those  exiles  who,  in  1554, 
lied  from  the  persecutions  of  Queen  Mary,  and  took  refuge 
in  Germany.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  they  returned, 
and  renewed  the  contest  at  homo  which  had  begun  abruad. 


EPISCOPATIONS.  49 

These  were  called  Puritans,  and  at  one  time  comprised 
many  distinguished  members  of  the  English  clergy. 

On  the  accession  of  James,  the  Puritans  hoped  for  some 
relief;  but  an  Episcopal  hierarchy  was  more  favorable  to 
his  views  than  the  Presbyterian  form  of  government,  and 
he  publicly  adopted  the  maxim,  "No  bishop,  no  king." 

When  the  English  divines  returned  from  the  Synod  of 
Dort,  the  king  and  the  majority  of  the  Episcopal  clergy 
discovered  an  inclination  to  the  sentiments  of  Armiuius, 
which  have  since  prevailed  over  Calvinism  among  the 
English  clergy. 

Under  Charles  I.,  the  attempts  made,  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  Laud,  to  reduce  all  the  churches  of  Great 
Britain  under  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  and  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  opinions  and  institutions  that  were  peculiar  to 
Calvinism,  cost  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  his  head, 
and  had  no  little  effect  in  imbittering  the  civil  contest 
between  the  throne  and  the  parliament.  After  the  death 
of  Laud,  the  parliament  abolished  the  Episcopal  govern- 
ment, and  condemned  everything  in  the  ecclesiastical  esta- 
blishment that  was  contrary  to  the  doctrine,  worship,  and 
discipline  of  the  Church  of  Geneva. 

As  soon  as  Charles  II.  was  restored  to  the  throne,  the 
ancient  forms  of  ecclesiastical  government  and  public  wor- 
ship were  restored  ;  and,  in  1662,  a  public  law,  entitled 
the  act  of  uniformity,  was  enacted,  by  which  all  who  re- 
fused to  observe  the  rites  and  subscribe  the  doctrines  of 
the  Church  of  England,  were  entirely  excluded  from  its 
dominion. 

In  the  reign  of  William  III.,  and  particularly  in  1689, 
the  divisions  among  the  friends  of  Episcopacy  gave  rise 
to  the  two  parties  called  the  high-churchmen,  or  non- 
jurors,  and  low-churchmen.  The  former  maintained  the 
doctrine  of  passive  obedience,  or  non-resistance  to  the 
5  D 


50  EPISCOPALIANS. 

sovereign  under  any  circumstance  whatever ;  that  the 
hereditary  succession  to  the  throne  is  of  d;  vine  institution, 
and  cannot  be  interrupted :  that  the  Church  is  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  God  alone ;  and,  consequently,  that 
certain  bishops  deposed  by  King  William  remained,  not- 
withstanding, true  bishops  ;  and  that  those  who  had  been 
appointed  in  their  places  were  rebels  and  schismatics,  and 
all  who  held  communion  with  them  were  guilty  of  rebellion 
and  schism. 

The  gradual  progress  of  civil  and  religious  liberty  during 
the  last  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  has  settled  practically 
many  such  controversies.  The  great  increase  of  the  dis- 
senters in  recent  times  (they  are  estimated  to  be  more 
numerous  than  the  members  of  the  established  Church) 
has  led  to  new  concessions  in  their  favor ;  the  repeal  of 
the  corporation  and  test  acts,  and  the  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion, as  it  is  called,  are  among  the  important  events  of  the 
late  reign. 

We  have  said  that  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land are  contained  in  the  thirty-nine  articles ;  we  are  not 
ignorant  that  the  most  eminent  English  divines  hare 
doubted  whether  they  are  Calvinistic  or  Lutheran,  that 
some  have  denominated  them  articles  of  peace,  and  that 
not  a  few  have  written  in  direct  opposition  to  them.  But 
they  are  the  established  confession  of  the  English  Church, 
*nd,  as  such,  deserve  a  short  analysis.  The  five  first  arti- 
cles contain  a  profession  of  faith  in  the  Trinity ;  the  incar- 
nation of  Jesus  Christ,  his  descent  to  hell,  and  his  resur- 
rection; the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  three 
following  relate  to  the  canon  of  the  Scripture.  The  eighth 
article  declares  a  belief  in  the  Apostles',  Nicene,  and 
Athanasian  creeds.  The  ninth  and  following  articles  con- 
tain the  doctrines  of  original  sin,  of  justification  by  faith 
ilone,  of  picdcstination,  &c.  The  nineteenth,  twentieth, 


EPISCOPALIANS.  51 

and  twenty-first  declare  the  Church  to  be  the  assembly  of 
the  faithful ;  that  it  can  decide  nothing  except  by  the 
Scriptures.  The  twenty-second  rejects  the  doctrine  of 
purgatory,  indulgences,  the  adoration  of  images,  and  the 
invocation  of  saints.  The  twenty-third  decides  that  only 
those  lawfully  called  shall  preach  or  administer  the  sacra- 
ments. The  twenty-fourth  requires  the  liturgy  to  be  in 
English.  The  twenty-fifth  and  twenty-sixth  declare  the 
sacraments  effectual  signs  of  grace  (though  administered 
by  evil  men),  by  which  God  excites  and  confirms  our  faith. 
They  are  two  ;  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Baptism, 
according  to  the  twenty-seventh  article,  is  a  sign  of  regene- 
ration, the  seal  of  our  adoption,  by  which  faith  is  con- 
firmed and  grace  increased.  In  the  Lord's  Supper,  ac- 
cording to  article  twenty-eighth,  the  bread  is  the  commu- 
nion of  the  body  of  Christ,  the  wine  the  communion  of 
his  blood,  but  only  through  faith  (art.  twenty-ninth) ;  and 
the  communion  must  be  administered  in  both  kinds  (art. 
thirty).  The  twenty-eighth  article  condemns  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation,  and  the  elevation  and  adoration  of 
the  host ;  the  thirty-first  rejects  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass 
as  blasphemous ;  the  thirty-second  permits  the  marriage 
of  the  clergy ;  /he  thirty-third  maintains  the  efficacy  of 
excommunication.  The  remaining  articles  relate  to  the 
supremacy  of  the  king,  the  condemnation  of  Anabap- 
tists, &c. 

In  the  United  States,  the  members  of  the  Church  of 
England,  or  Episcopalians,  form  a  large  and  respectable 
denomination.  When  the  Revolutionary  War  began,  there 
•were  only  about  eighty  parochial  clergymen  of  this  Church 
to  the  northward  and  eastward  of  Maryland ;  and  they 
derived  the  greater  part  of  their  subsistence  from  the 
English  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in 
Foreign  Parts.  In  Maryland  and  Virginia,  the  Episcopal 


52  EPISCOPALIANS. 

Church  was  much  more  numerous,  and  had  legal  establish- 
ments for  its  support.  The  inconvenience  of  depending 
on  the  mother  Church  for  ordination,  and  the  want  of  an 
internal  Episcopacy,  was  long  severely  felt  by  the  Ameri- 
can Episcopalians.  But  their  petitions  for  an  Episcopate 
of  their  own  were  long  resisted  by  their  superiors  in  Eug 
land ;  and  their  opponents  in  the  United  States  objected 
to  the  measure  from  an  apprehension  that  bishops  from 
England  would  bring  with  them  an  authority  which  would 
interfere  with  the  civil  institutions  of  this  country,  and  be 
prejudicial  to  the  members  of  other  communions.  After 
the  United  States  had  become  independent  of  Great 
Britain,  a  new  difficulty  arose  on  the  part  of  the  English 
bishops :  they  could  not  consistently  depart  from  their 
own  stated  forms  of  ordination,  and  these  contained  politi- 
cal tests  improper  for  American  citizens  to  subscribe. 
Dr.  L'  wth,  then  Bishop  of  London,  obtained  an  act  of 
Parliament  allowing  him  to  dispense  with  these  political 
requisitions.  Before  this  act  was  passed,  Dr.  Seabury 
was  consecrated  at  Aberdeen  by  the  non-juring  bishops  of 
Scotland ;  and,  not  long  after,  Dr.  W.  White,  of  Philadel- 
phia, Dr.  Provoost,  of  New  York,  and  Dr.  James  Madison, 
of  Virginia,  were  consecrated  by  the  English  archbishops. 

In  1792  there  were  four  bishops  and  about  200  clergy. 
In  1832  there  were  fifteen  bishops  and  583  clergy.  In 
1855  the  number  of  bishops  had  increased  to  thirty-eight, 
and  the  clergy  to  1714,  while  the  communicants  were  re- 
ported to  be  105,350.  In  1859  there  were  1422  churches, 
with  accommodations  for  625,213  persons.  The  total 
value  of  church  property  was  $11,261,970. 

Some  changes  in  the  liturgy  of  the  American  branch 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  were  early  made,  in  accommoda- 
tion to  the  American  clergy,  and  the  difference  in  the 
political  condition  of  the  two  countries. 


DUTCH    REFORMED    CHURCH.  53 

The  three  orders  of  bivshops,  priests,  and  deacons,  are 
retained.  The  churches  choose  their  pastors,  but  their 
installation  or  induction  requires  the  consent  of  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese.  The  churchwardens  are  chosen  by  the 
communicants,  the  vestry  by  the  parish. 

Each  diocese  holds  an  Annual  Convention,  composed  of 
clergy  and  lay  delegates  elected  by  the  people,  in  which 
the  bishop  presides. 

Every  three  years  a  General  Convention  is  held,  com- 
posed of  the  bishops,  who  form  the  House  of  Bishops  ;  and 
clerical  and  lay  delegates  from  each  diocese,  who  form  the 
House  of  Delegates :  and  the  Episcopal  Church  through- 
out the  United  States  is  governed  by  the  canons  of  tha 
General  Convention. 


DUTCH  REFORMED  CHURCH. 

THE  colony  of  New  Amsterdam,  now  New  York,  was 
settled^  in  1612  by  the  Dutch.  Missionaries  and  pious 
immigrants  arrived  here  in  the  very  beginning  of  the 
colony,  but  it-  is  not  known  at  what  time  a  church  was  first 
organized.  The  Collegiate  Church  is  supposed  to  have 
been  formed  in  1619.  The  Dutch  Reformed  Church  is  by 
many  years  earlier  than  any  other  Presbyterian  church  in 
this  country.  It  differs  but  slightly  from  the  other  Ameri- 
can Presbyterian  churches.  Unfortunately,  the  names 
used  for  its  officers  and  ecclesiastical  bodies,  and  the  name 
of  the  church  itself,  do  not  impart  to  the  English  reader  a 
clear  view  of  the  things  represented.  It  should  be  re- 
membered, then,  that  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  is  no 
longer  a  Dutch  church.  Its  services  are  all  performed  ia 


54  DUTCH    REFORMED    CHURCH. 

English,  and  all  its  modes  of  action  are  naturalized  to  our 
country;  so  that  no  church  among  us  is  more  perfectly 
American,  or  better  adapted  to  make  an  effectual  move- 
ment in  the  propagation  of  religion  among  our  varied 
population. 

If  its  name  were  changed,  and  its  dominie  were  called  a 
minister,  its  consistory  a  session,  its  classis  a  presbytery, 
and  its  general  synod  a  general  assembly,  there  would  be 
little  remaining  to  distinguish  it  from  the  American  Pres- 
byterian Church. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church 
in  this  country,  it  was  subordinate  to  the  classis  of  Am- 
sterdam till  1737.  In  this  year  a  movement  was  made  to 
throw  off  dependence  on  the  parent  classis.  This  occa- 
sioned a  violent  contest,  which  was  not  terminated  till 
1771:  when  the  Rev.  Dr.  Livingston,  having  previously 
convinced  the  classis  of  Amsterdam  of  the  desirableness 
of  the  measure,  and  having  prepared  the  way  by  concili- 
ating wise  men  of  both  parties,  induced  the  consistory  of 
Lis  church  to  call  a  convention.  The  convention  met  in 
New  York  in  October,  and  resulted  in  a  harmonious  ar- 
rangement for  a  complete  organization  of  the  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church  in  this  country  as  an  independent  body. 
It  receives  the  confession  of  faith,  as  adopted  by  the  na- 
tional synod  of  the  Council  of  Dort  in  the  years  1618  and 
1G19,  with  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  the  Compend  of  the 
Christian  religion,  and  the  canons  of  the  Council  of  Dort 
on  the  famous  five  points.  It  is  strictly  Calvinistic. 

Th<*  Dutch  Reformed  Church  has  a  limited  liturgy, 
which  is  allowed  to  be  used  by  those  who,  through  a  defec- 
tive education  or  inexperience,  need  such  helps.  The  only 
part  which  is  enjoined  is  the  reading;  of  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments in  the  opening  of  the  morning  service,  the 
foiia  of  baptism,  the  short  prayer  beiorc  the  vows  taken 


DUTCH    EEFORMED    CHURCH.  55 

by  parents  in  the  baptism  of  infants,  and  the  formula  of 
the  holy  communion  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  last  is 
-ead  by  the  minister,  while  all  the  members  carefully  and 
devoutly  follow  him,  with  the  book  open  before  them. 
There  is  a  single  point  in  which  their  government  differs 
from  other  branches  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  The 
ruling  elders,  instead  of  being  elected  for  life,  are  appointed 
for  two  years.  If  acceptable  to  the  church,  they  may  be 
appointed  again  after  having  been  out  of  office  for  one 
year. 

The  government  of  .the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  is 
P:  esbyterian.  It  is  fully  described  in  the  article  on 
Presbyterians.  They  only  use  a  different  nomenclature,  in 
soi ae  respects,  in  speaking  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The 
consistory,  or  session,  is  composed  of  the  minister,  or 
big  hop,  ruling  elders,  and  deacons.  The  pastor  and  elders 
meet  as  a  spiritual  court  to  transact  the  spiritual  concerns, 
such  as  the  admission  of  members,  and  the  exercise  of  dis- 
cipline. The  deacons  are  charged  with  the  care  of  the 
poor.  The  consistory,  including  the  deacons,  meet  as  a 
board  of  trustees,  for  the  transaction  of  the  secular  busi- 
ness of  the  church.  On  great  occasions,  such  as  the  call- 
ing of  a  minister,  what  is  termed  the  grand  consistory  is 
called  together.  This  is  composed  of  the  acting  session, 
and  all  who  have  previously  belonged  to  that  body.  The 
next  court  is  the  classis,  or  presbytery ;  the  next,  the  par- 
ticular synod,  which,  like  the  classis,  is  a  representative 
body.  It  consists  of  two  ministers  and  two  elders  from 
each  classis  within  its  bounds.  The  highest  court,  from 
which  there  is  no  appeal,  is  the  general  synod.  This  is 
composed  of  three  ministers  and  three  elders  from  each 
classis  of  the  whole  church.  It  holds  its  sessions  annu- 
ally, and  conducts  its  affairs  much  in  the  same  method 
with  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church. 


58  DUTCH     REFORMED     CHURCH. 

The  college  and  theological  seminary  at  New  Brunswick, 
N.  J.,  are  an  honor  to  the  Dutch  Church.  Amply  en- 
dowed, and  furnished  with  able  professors,  they  exert  their 
full  share  of  influence,  in  raising  up  a  learned  and  able 
ministry.  This  church  reports  in  the  Minutes  of  the  Gen- 
eral Synod  for  1847  —  particular  synods,  2;  classes,  24; 
ministers,  289;  churches,  276;  communicants,  32, 840 ; 
members  of  congregations,  110.977. 

In  the  American  Almanac  for  1859,  the  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church  is  stated  to  have  324  churches,  accommo- 
dations for  181,986  worshippers,  *and  church  property  to 
the  amount  of  $4,096,730. 

The  sessions  of  the  General  Synod  held  during  the  war 
were  marked  by  weighty  and  earnest  declarations  of  sym- 
pathy with  the  government  in  its  struggle  to  maintain  the 
integrity  of  the  nation,  and  by  more  guarded  yet  suffi- 
ciently clear  utterances  in  favor  of  the  removal  of  slavery 
as  the  source  of  our  troubles. 

No  Church  has  a  more  honorable  record  in  the  work  of 
Foreign  Missions  than  this,  and  no  names  in  this  depart- 
ment are  more  favorably  known  to  the  Christian  world 
than  her  Abeel,  Pohlman,  and  above  all  her  Scudders, 
father  and  sons.  In  1817  the  General  Synod  united 
with  the  Presbyterian  and  the  Associate  Reformed 
churches  in  forming  the  United  Foreign  Missionary  So- 
ciety. In  1826  this  was  merged  in  the  American  Board 
of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions.  In  1857  an 
amicable  separation  from  the  Board  took  place,  when  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church  undertook  the  foreign  mission- 
ary work  through  the  ordinary  denominational  channels, 
in  the  separation,  the  Amoy  mission  in  China  and  the 
Arcot  mission  in  India,  which  had  been  founded  and 
carried  on  by  ministers  of  the  Dutch  Church  exclusively, 
were  set  over  to  that  denomination,  and  they  have  been 


DUTCH     REFORMED     CHURCH.  57 

among  the  most  prosperous  missions  in  that  .part  of  the 
world. 

At  the  time  of  the  separation,  the  General  Synod  re- 
quested the  ministers  and  churches  in  China,  after  the 
example  of  those  in  India,  to  form  themselves  into  a 
classis,  according  to  the  order  of  the  Dutch  Church. 
This  they  declined  doing,  preferring  to  form,  with  the 
flourishing  congregations  of  the  English  Presbyterian 
Mission,  a  separate  organization,  called  "  The  Great  Pres- 
byterial  or  Classical  Council  of  Amoy." 

In  1863  missionaries  were  sent  to  Japan.  In  1866 
Rev.  S.  R.  Bowen,  missionary  at  Yokohama,  sent  a  cir- 
cular of  great  interest  to  Christians  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  showing  the  marvellous  preparation  for  the  en- 
trance of  the  Gospel  in  that  country.  He  asked  the  co- 
operation of  Christendom  in  the  work  of  evangelizing 
Japan.  Four  of  the  foremost  princes  have  requested  a 
missionary  to  superintend  their  educational  interests. 
Two  governors  consulted  with  the  missionary  on  the 
same  subject,  and  large  numbers  of  Christian  books  in 
Chinese  have  been  purchased  or  distributed  among  the 
natives. 

In  18G6,  a  committee  of  the  General  Classis  was  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  into  the  expediency  and  propriety  oi 
dropping  the  word  "Dutch  "  from  the  name  of  the  de- 
nomination. Next  year  the  General  Synod,  by  102  to  7, 
voted  in  favor  of  the  change,  and  on  submitting  the  ques- 
tion to  the  classes,  25  voted  in  favor  and  6  against  it. 
The  adjourned  meeting  of  the  General  Synod  in  Novem- 
ber ratified  the  action  of  the  classes  by  a  vote  of  112  to 
7.  By  this  action,  the  name  and  style  of  the  Church 
became  "  The  Reformed  Church  in  America."  The 
charter  of  the  Church  was  amended  to  conform  to  this 
change  by  the  Legislature  of  New  York. 


58  GERMAN     REFORMED     CHURCH. 

Statistics  for  1870:  33  classes,  464  churches,  403 
ministers,  61,444  communicants.  Contributions  to  gen- 
eral benevolence  $281,647.36 ;  to  congregational  pur- 
poses $906,034.27. 


GERMAN  REFORMED  CHURCH. 

THE  German  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States 
dates  its  origin  in  about  1740,  and  was  formed  by  immi- 
grants from  Germany  and  Switzerland.  It  commenced  ita 
existence  in  this  country  in  the  eastern  portion  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  German 
population.  At  an  early  period,  however,  congregations 
were  formed  in  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  Maryland,  New 
Jersey,  and  New  York. 

The  German  Reformed  Church  consists,  at  this  time, 
of  two  independent  synods.  They  are  bound  together  by 
a  triennial  convention.  But  this  convention  at  first  was 
not  a  court  of  appeal,  and  possessed  none  of  the  power  of  a 
general  synod.  In  1810  or  1812,  the  Rev.  Jacob  William 
Dechaut  was  sent  out  as  a  missionary  to  the  State  of  Ohio. 
He  was  stationed  at  Miamisburg,  Montgomery  County. 
The  Rev.  Messrs.  Winters  and  Weis  joined  him  ;  and  their 
labors  were  attended  with  so  much  success  that  a  classia 
was  organized  in  1819  ;  and  in  1823  or  1824  the  majority 
of  the  classes  separated  from  the  parent  body,  and  became 
an  independent  judicatory,  calling  themselves  the  Synod 
of  Oliio.  In  1836  the  classis  of  Western  Pennsylvania 
obtained  permission  to  unite  with  the  Synod  of  Ohio, 
which  now  bore  the  title  of  "  The  Synod  of  Ohio  and  the 
adjoining  States;"  and  by  a  late  act,  this  synod,  which 


GERMAN  REFORMED  CHURCH.       59 

nad  previously,  been  subdivided  into  three  district  synods, 
received  a  new  organization  agreeably  to  the  plan  of  the 
constitution  of  the  eastern  church.  The  western  church  is 
jow  divided  into  classes,  and  its  synod  is  a  delegated  body 
composed  of  the  representatives  of  the  classes. 

The  government  of  the  Gerrr.in  Reformed  Church  ia 
strictly  Presbyterian.  While  t'  iere  was  no  general  synod, 
appeals  could  not  be  carried  so  far  by  one  court  as  in  the 
Dutch  Reformed  and  American  Presbyterian  churches. 
For  an  explanation  of  the  terms  consistory,  classes,  etc., 
see  the  preceding  article. 

An  appeal  could  be  taken  from  the  consistory  to  the 
classes,  and  from  the  classes  to  the  synod,  whose  decision 
was  final. 

The  German  Reformed  Church  in  this  country  is  now 
spread  over  the  whole  of  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  and  over 
portions  of  Maryland,  Virginia.  North  Carolina,  Missouri, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Michigan,  and  New  York.  There  is  a 
church  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans ;  others  formerly  sub- 
sisted in  New  Jersey,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Ken* 
tucky ;  and  some  members  are  still  scattered  over  the 
several  States  of  the  Union. 

The  eastern  portion  of  the  church  is  the  original  and 
parent  body ;  and  its  synod,  existing  before  the  othor, 
bears  the  title  of  "  The  Synod  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church  in  the  United  States."  Its  territory  extends  in 
Pennsylvania  westward  to  the  Alloghany  Mountains ; 
northward  it  includes  portions  of  New  York ;  and  on  the 
south,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  Carolina.  It  has  under  it3 
jurisdiction  ten  classes,  viz. :  Philadelphia,  Goshenhoppen, 
East  Pennsylvania,  Lebanon,  Susquehanna,  Zion,  Mercers- 
burg,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina. 

The  doctrines  of  this  church  are  Calvinistic ;  that  is  to 


60  GERMAN     REFORMED     CHURCH. 

say,  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  is  their  symbol,  though  a 
large  portion  of  the  laity  lean  to  Arminian  doctrines 
touching  the  subject  of  predestination.  They  practise  the 
rite  of  confirmation ;  which  is,  however,  little  else  than  a 
ceremony  admitting  candidates,  who  give  evidence  of  rege- 
neration, to  full  comim  nion.  They  have  a  theological 
seminary  founded  in  182«;~,  and  a  college  established  in 
1836;  both  are  located  in  Pennsylvania,  and  are  in  a 
flourishing  state.  They  have  a  Board  of  Foreign  Missions, 
and  sustain  one  missionary  station  at  Broosa,  in  Asia 
Minor.  Their  foreign  missionary  transactions  are  all  mado 
through  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  For- 
eign Missions,  with  which  body  a  connection  has  been 
formed  for  that  purpose.  According  to  the  published 
Minutes  of  1845,  the  Eastern  Synod  then  comprised  10 
classes,  155  ministers,  471  congregations,  and  31,170 
communicants.  The  Western  Synod  contained  6  classes, 
72  ministers,  236  congregations,  and  7,885  communicants. 
A  summary  of  the  whole  force  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church  in  this  country,  then,  was  —  2  synods,  containing 
16  classes,  227  ministers,  707  churches,  and  39,055  com- 
municants. It  is  remarkable  that  such  a  disproportion 
should  exist  between  the  number  of  ministers  and  churches. 
This  arises  from  a  peculiar  usage  of  intrusting  several 
congregations  to  the  charge  of  a  singJe  minister. 

In  the  American  Almanac  for  18-59,  the  German  Re- 
formed Church  is  stated  to  have  327  churches,  accommo- 
dations for  156.032  worshippers,  and  church  property  to 
the  amount  of  $965,880. 

Much  agitation  upon  the  expediency  of  a  more  elabor- 
ate and  authoritative  ritual,  and  upon  "High  Church" 
views,  taught  in  the  seminary  at  Mercereburg,  chieily  by 
Dr.  Nevin,  has  been  experienced  in  the  past  quarter 


GERMAN     REFORMED     CHURCH.  61 

century  of  this  church's  history.  The  Western  Synod  has 
adhered  to  more  strictly  Protestant  ground,  but  in  the 
Eastern  Synod  the  powerful  influence  of  Dr.  Nevin  and 
his  able  associates  has,  until  lately,  quite  overborne  that 
of  Dr.  Bouiberger  and  his  associates  upon  the  other  side, 
such  men  as  Dr.  Berg  and  Di.  Helfenstein  having  mean- 
while withdrawn  from  the  body,  to  seek  more  congenial  re- 
lations in  the  Reformed  Dutch  and  Presbyterian  Churches. 
In  1863  the  Triennial  General  Convention  was  clothed 
with  judicial  power.  A  resolution  admonishing  the  sub- 
ordinate bodies  of  the  duty  of  loyalty  to  the  government 
was  adopted.  The  tercentenary  of  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism was  celebrated  this  year,  by  a  series  of  meetings 
lusting  from  the  17th  to  the  23d  of  January.  The  ad- 
dresses and  essays  were  subsequently  published  in  a  large 
memorial  volume.  A  superb  edition  of  the  Catechism,  in 
Latin,  German  and  English,  was  also  published  as  a  me- 
morial of  the  occasion.  The  tercentenary  contributions  to 
be  applied  to  theological  institutions  and  benevolent  ob- 
jects reached  $103,000. 

In  1866,  the  two  classes  in  the  South,  which  had  been 
hindered  but  not  estranged  by  the  war,  were  again  fully 
represented  in  the  Triennial  Convention.  Proposals  to 
co-operate  with  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  in  the  work 
of  Foreign  Missions  were  received  and  considered,  with- 
out final  action.  The  classes  were  requested,  a  second 
time,  to  take  action  upon  the  proposal  to  drop  the  word 
"  German  "  from  the  title  of  the  Church,  the  majority  hav- 
ing previously  voted  in  the  negative.  The  discussions  on 
the  liturgy  were  very  animated.  The  Western  Synod, 
which  is  "Low  Church,"  reported  that  they  were  stilt 
engaged  on  the  work  of  revising  a  liturgy,  but  were  not 
prepared  to  report  finally.  The  Eastern  Synod  had  for 
some  time  been  using  a  liturgy  considered  "  High  Church," 


62  GERMAN     REFORMED     CHURCH. 

and  which  they  desired  the  Convention  to  endorse  and 
authorize  for  the  whole  body.  By  a  close  vote  (64  to  57) 
it  was  decided  to  recommit  the  liturgy  of  the  Eastern  and 
the  unfinished  work  of  the  Western  Synod  to  new  hands, 
and  to  require  a  new  revised  liturgy  to  be  presented  at 
the  next  triennial  session.  A  convention  of  those  opposed 
to  the  "  High  Church  "  liturgy  was  held  at  Meyerstown, 
Pennsylvania,  in  September,  1867,  which  was  very  em- 
phatically condemned  at  a  subsequent  meeting  of  the 
Eastern  Synod  as  irregular  and  schismatic.  At  the  last 
general  synod,  in  1869,  it  appeared  that  twenty-four  out 
of  the  thirty-one  classes  had  voted  in  favor  of  dropping 
the  word  "  German  "  from  the  name,  and  the  change  was 
declared  carried.  The  body  is  therefore  known  as  the 
"  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States."  Overtures 
looking  to  organic  union  from  the  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church  in  America  were  favorably  entertained,  but  the 
time  for  definite  action  was  not  considered  to  have  ar- 
rived. In  regard  to  a  liturgy,  it  was  left  optional  with 
classes  which  to  employ. 

The  statistics  for  1870  give  31  classes,  526  ministers, 
1179  congregations,  217,910  "members,"  96,728  being 
"communicants."  The  benevolent  contributions  were 
$76.453.15.  In  1868  there  were  connected  with  the 
church  six  colleges,  two  seminaries,  and  one  mifevsion 
house. 

The  Foreign  Missionary  work  of  this  church  is  don* 
through  the  American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions.  Ono 
of  the  most  successful  missionaries  of  that  Board  is  Rev. 
B.  Schneider,  of  the  Reformed  Church,  whose  services  in 
oounection  with  the  great  church  of  Aintab  in  the  Ar- 
menian mission  are  well  known  to  the  Christian  public. 
Congregations  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred  assem- 
bled regularly  in  the  church  under  his  care,  anJ  <ihe  re- 


THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.   63 

markable  movements  among  the  Armenian  Churches  to- 
wards self-support  and  independent  evangelistic  effort  ap- 
peared here  at  a  very  early  date. 

The  Ursinus  College,  recently  founded  by  Dr.  J.  H.  A. 
Bomberger  and  others,  mainly  of  Philadelphia,  is  designed 
to  serve  as  a  counteractive  to  the  educational  and  theo- 
logical tendencies  of  Mercersbursr. 


THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

THE  Lutheran  Church  is  that  body  of  Christian  confes- 
sors, or  aggregate  of  particular  Churches,  who  adhere  to 
the  Augsburg  Confession,  as  a  correct  exhibit  of  the  great 
doctrines  taught  in  the  sacred  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  These  Churches  are  found  in  the  Ger- 
manic States,  Prussia,  Austria,  France,  Denmark,  Norway, 
Sweden,  Russia,  Poland,  Finland,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  the 
Netherlands,  European  Turkey,  England,  the  United 
States,  Canadas,  Nova  Scotia,  East  and  West  Indies, 
South  America,  Africa,  and  other  parts  of  the  world. 
Some  of  them  adhere  to  the  Augsburg  Confession  with 
more  rigidness  than  others ;  but,  in  some  form,  that  great 
Confession  is  their  acknowledged  Symbol,  by  which  they 
testify  to  each  other,  and  to  the  world,  their  mutual  affilia- 
tion, and  their  distinctness  from  all  others. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  birthday  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  was  the  31st  of  October,  1517,  when  Luther 
nailed  upon  the  Church-door  of  Wittenberg  his  ninety- 
five  Theses  against  the  infamous  traffic  in  indulgences, 
setting  forth  the  only  way  of  forgiveness  in  Christ  Jesus; 
that  the  day  of  her  baptism  was  the  17th  of  April,  1521, 
when  Luther  appeared  before  the  Diet  of  Worms,  and,  in 
the  face  of  all  the  powers  on  earth,  avowed  his  unflinch- 
ing adherence  to  conscience  and  the  plain  word  of  God , 


64   THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

I 

that  the  day  of  her  confirmation  was  the  25th  of  June, 
1530,  when  the  Lutheran  princes  stood  up  before  the  im- 
perial throne  of  Charles  V.,  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  and 
gave  out  that  noble  Confession  of  the  true  Christian  faith, 
which  will  ever  remain  "the  heroic  monument  of  the 
most  admirable  acts  with  which  Christian  history  makes 
us  acquainted ;"  and  that  the  day  when  she  reached  her 
maturity,  and  became  of  age,  was  the  26th  of  September, 
1555,  when  the  religious  wars  of  Germany  terminated  in  the 
Peace  of  Augsburg,  and  gave  to  Protestant  Christians  their 
political  recognition  and  the  free  enjoyment  of  their  faith. 

But  Lutherans  say  it  was  not  there,  nor  thence,  that  their 
principles  were  derived,  nor  those  great  events  that  origi- 
nated what  is  known  as  the  Lutheran  Church.  They  say 
that  its  root  runs  back  into  the  ages  of  Prophets  and 
Apostles,  that  its  true  birth  was  in  the  birth  of  Jesus, 
and  that  its  true  baptism,  that  which  occurred  at  Jerusa- 
lem on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  "Whilst  Luther  amended 
the  gravest  errors  and  vices  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and 
restored  the  Church  to  a  happier  condition,  he  did  not 
frame  a  new  Church,"  says  Buddeus.  "The  Reformers 
desired  not,  and  are  not  to  be  considered  founders  of  a 
new  Church,  but  simply  renewers  of  the  old  upon  its  an- 
cient foundation,"  says  Sartorius.  "The  doctrine  of  the 
Lutherans,"  says  Walch,  "  is  no  new  doctrine ;  it  is  the 
same  which  has  been  steadfastly  preserved  in  the  Church 
from  old,  and  from  the  times  of  the  Apostles :  for  we 
teach  nothing  in  our  Churches,  except  what  the  pure,  an- 
cient, apostolic  Christian  Church  teaches." 

Lutherans  are  very  particular  to  distinguish  between 
the  Romish  Church,  in  the  specific  sense  of  the  papal  sys- 
tem, and  the  true  Catholic  Church  of  Christ,  of  which 
the  papacy  had  taken  possession.  The  one  is  human ;  the 
other  is  divine.  The  one  originated  with  the  Apostles, 


THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.   65 

and  with  Christ,  whose  earthly  body  it  is ;  the  other  arose 
during  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  after  Christ.  The 
one  existed  before  there  was  a  pope,  or  a  papal  system,  and 
hence,  of  course,  does  not  cease  with  the  expulsion  and 
abandonment  of  the  pope  and  his  system.  Departure 
from  the  corruptions  and  false  authorities  which  had  risen 
ip  in  the  true  Church,  does  not,  by  any  means,  involve 
leparture  from  the  Church  itself.  "No  one,  therefore," 
•ays  Heerbrand,  "can  justly  charge  us  with  apostasy;  for 
we  have  in  no  way  departed  from  the  true  Church  of  God, 
but  only  from  that  of  malignants  and  Antichrist,  which 
has  hated  us,  and  from  which  the  Holy  Ghost  also  directs 
and  commands  us  to  depart."  When  the  Lutherans  re- 
nounced the  papacy  and  its  abominations,  they  took  with 
them  the  same  Bible,  the  same  Ecumenical  Confessions, 
the  same  holy  Faith,  and  the  same  apostolic  ministry  and 
sacraments,  which  distinguished  the  true  Church  from  the 
beginning,  and  hence  the  same  historic  Church-life,  which 
took  its  rise  in  the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  trickled 
feebly  through  the  rubbish  and  darkness  of  the  middle 
ages,  and  never  was,  or  could  be,  entirely  lost. 

The  Church  before  the  Reformation  had  three  general 
Creeds,  the  Apostles',  the  Nicene,  and  the  Athanasian. 

The  Apostles'  Creed  took  its  being  and  shape  from  the 
Formula  of  Baptism  given  by  the  Lord  Himself,  and  was 
the  natural  and  necessary  fruit  of  it,  by  which  all  the 
earliest  Churches,  almost  simultaneously,  and  without 
formal  agreement,  united  in  the  expression  of  their  one 
common  faith. 

Out  of  this  primary  Creed  as  naturally  grew  the  Nicene, 
necessitated  as  it  was  by  the  great  controversies  of  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries,  concerning  the  Trinity,  and 
especially  by  the  heretical  tenets  of  the  Arians  and  Mace- 
donians. Then  came  the  Nestorian  and  Eutychian  agita- 

6*  E 


06   THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

tions,  which  called  for  still  closer  definitions  and  stricter 
guards  of  the  great  substance  of  the  faith.  These  were 
realized  in  the  Athanasian  Creed. 

All  these  Creeds  thus  having  a  necessary  and  unrelin- 
quishable  connection  with  the  Church's  utterance  and  pre- 
servation of  what  she  received  direct  from  Christ  and 
His  inspired  Apostles  and  Evangelists,  the  Lutherans 
hold,  cannot  be  abandoned  without  unmaking  the  Spirit- 
moved  history  of  the  universal  body  of  the  truest  and 
best  disciples  Christ  had  upon  earth  in  the  course  of  more 
than  a  thousand  years,  as  they  show  us  the  true  Catholic 
faith  as  wrought  out  in  the  consciousness  of  the  members 
of  the  true  body  of  Christ,  and  rest  directly  and  only  on 
the  Holy  Scriptures. 

To  these  essential  and  Catholic  expressions  of  the  faith, 
the  Lutheran  Church  adheres,  next  to  the  Scriptures,  as 
right  utterances  of  the  contents  of  God's  word  with  regard 
to  the  questions  and  circumstances  which  gave  them  being. 
So  far,  then,  she  is  soundly  Catholic,  and  vitally  con- 
joined with  the  only  proper  Church,  for  the  first  fifteen 
centuries  of  its  existence. 

At  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  there  were  still  other 
relations  of  the  contents  of  the  Gospel,  which  it  had  be- 
come as  necessary  to  define  as  those  with  which  the  Ecu- 
menical symbols  dealt. 

The  Augsburg  Confession,  therefore,  it  is  claimed,  is  as 
deeply  inlaid  with  the  historic  conservation  of  the  Gospel 
in  the  convictions  and  belief  of  men,  as  any  of  the  older 
Creeds;  that  it  grew  out  of  similar  necessities,  was  fashioned 
by  a  like  law,  proceeded  from  a  corresponding  Spirit-moved 
source,  and  to  the  same  end ;  and  that  it  can  no  more  be 
abandoned  now,  and  yet  the  pure  Catholic  faith  be  re- 
tained, than  the  Ecumenical  symbols  which  went  before  it. 

And  upon  the  Augsburg'  Confession,  as  necessarily,  in 


THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.   67 

their  degree,  followed  the  Apology,  and  the  Smalcald  Ar- 
ticles, polemically  dealing  with  Romish  perversions  and 
contradictions ;  and  then  the  Form  of  Concord,  to  dispose 
of  the  internal  disputes  which  troubled  the  Reformation 
itself.  Many  of  the  sublimest  reminiscences  of  Protest- 
antism pertain  to  the  history  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 

The  first  successful  attempt  to  reform  the  corrupt  Church 
of  the  Middle  Ages  was  made  by  the  Lutherans.  There 
were  reformers  before  Luther,  but  there  was  no  effective 
reformation,  except  that  which  he  led.  Those  ninety-five 
Theses,  nailed  to  the  door  of  the  Church  of  All  Saints  at 
Wittenberg,  on  the  morning  of  the  31st  of  October,  1517; 
the  seventeen  Articles  of  Torgau,  prepared  by  his  hand  in 
obedience  to  the  command  of  one  of  the  most  praiseworthy 
of  rulers;  the  magnificent  protest  of  the  Lutheran  princes 
at  the  Diet  of  Spires ;  and  the  triumphant  Confession  of 
Augsburg,  along  with  the  hymns  and  sermons,  transla- 
tions, and  other  writings  of  Luther  and  his  associates, 
must  ever  be  acknowledged  as  the  first  effective  disclosure 
to  modern  nations  of  those  ancient  and  undying  truths 
which  make  up  the  real  essence  of  Christianity.  Luther 
found  the  Bible  chained  in  the  cloister,  and  he  was  the 
first,  in  modern  times,  to  break  its  fetters,  and  to  set  it 
free.  He  himself  translated  it  into  the  common  language 
of  the  people,  in  a  version  which  stands  to  this  day  as  the 
best  extant,  which  has  largely  formed  the  basis  and  led 
the  way  for  all  subsequent  translations,  and  which  laid  at 
once  the  foundations  of  Protestantism  and  German  litera- 
ture— the  ruling  religion  and  literature  of  the  earth. 

It  is  also  claimed  that  the  Lutheran  Church,  by  her 
Confessions  and  masters  in  theology,  has,  either  directly 
or  indirectly,  given  to  all  orthodox  Christendom  its  Creed. 
As  remarked  by  one  of  her  doctors :  "  The  Augsburg 
Confession  has  been  substantially  inwrought  into  all  the 


68   THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

subsequent  evangelical  symbols,  both  in  and  out  of  Ger- 
many ;  and,  in  the  opposition  which  it  provoked,  even 
determined  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Trent." 

As  to  that  branch  of  the  Keformation  which  took  the 
name  of  Reformed,  Bossuet  says :  "  The  Calvinists,  par- 
ticularly, cannot  deny  that  they  have  always  looked  upon 
Luther  and  the  Lutherans  as  the  authors  of  their  Re- 
formation ;  and,  not  to  speak  of  Calvin,  who  often  men- 
tioned Luther  with  great  regard,  as  the  head  of  the  Re- 
formation, all  the  Calvinists,  Germans,  English,  Hungari- 
ans, Poles,  Dutch,  and  all  others,  in  general,  who  assembled 
at  Frankfort  through  the  influence  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
all  these  having  acknowledged  those  of  the  Confession  of 
Augsburg,  namely,  the  Lutherans,  as  the  first  who  gave 
a  new  birth  to  the  Church." 

As  to  the  Church  of  England,  with  her  daughter,  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States,  Ty  tier, 
the  historian,  has  very  properly  observed,  that  she  has 
chiefly  conformed  her  tenets  to  the  Lutheran  system  of 
Reformation.  "  The  principles  upon  which  our  Re- 
formation was  conducted,"  says  Archbishop  Laurence, 
"  were  manifestly  Lutheran."  In  the  construction  of  the 
Thirty-nine  articles,  Bishop  Burnet  affirms  his  conviction, 
that  "  great  regard  was  had  to  the  Lutheran  Churches, 
with  whom  a  conjunction  was  much  endeavored."  Lau- 
rence says  of  them,  that  they  "  were  neither  the  production 
of  Parker  nor  the  convocation,"  but  "were  borrowed  from 
a  Lutheran  Creed."  He  notes  "  a  manifest  resemblance 
between  them  and  that  boast  of  Germany  and  pride  of 
the  Reformation,  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  which  in 
some  instances  amounts  to  a  direct  transcript  of  whole 
passages"  and  "entire  extracts,  without  the  slightest 
omission  or  important  variation."  Bishop  Whittingham, 
of  Maryland,  speaking  of  l!he  Thirty-nine  Articles,  in  his 


THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.   69 

charge  for  1849,  says,  that  "with  the  Augsburg  Confession 
their  connection  is  of  a  nature  the  most  intimate  and  di- 
rect, substantiate  by  superabundant  evidence,  both  in- 
ternal and  circumstantial.  In  more  than  one  respect," 
he  continues,  "  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  is  the  source 
of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England 
and  America — their  prototype  in  form,  their  model  in 
doctrine,  and  the  very  fountain  of  many  of  their  expres- 
sions; while  others  are  drawn  from  its  derivative  expo- 
sitions and  repetitions."  Palmer,  Hare,  Short,  Chapin, 
Proctor,  Humphrey,  Hardwick,  and  other  prominent 
Episcopalians,  have  made  the  same  acknowledgment. 
And  even  the  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer  is  largely 
indebted  to  the  Lutheran  Reformers.  It  was,  to  a  large 
extent,  based  upon  a  book  of  "directions  for  the  public 
services  and  administration  of  the  sacraments,  with  forms 
of  prayer  and  a  litany,"  given  out  by  authority  of  Herr- 
man,  Prince  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  as  a  form  of  doctrine 
and  worship  for  his  subjects,  and'  prepared  by  Melancthon 
and  Bucer.  Humphrey  says  of  this  book,  that  "  it  was 
not  so  much  a  new  composition  as  a  revision  of  the  an- 
cient formularies,  and  was  taken  in  great  measure  from  a 
Liturgy  prepared  by  Luther  and  used  at  Nuremberg." 
And  Proctor,  in  his  History,  says,  that  "  the  litany,  the 
exhortations  in  the  communion  service,  and  portions  of 
the  baptismal  services,  are  mainly  due  to  this  book, 
through  which  the  influence  of  Luther  may  be  traced  in 
our  (English)  Prayer  Book,  where  additions  or  consider- 
able changes  were  made  in  translating  the  old  Latin 
Services." 

It  is,  therefore,  with  justice  that  the  Lutheran  Church 
takes  to  herself  the  high  appellation  of  The  Mother  of 
Protestants.  Evangelical  Christendom  owes  more  to  the 
Lutherans,  for  everything  pure,  blessed,  and  great  in  its 


70   THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

religion,  than  to  any  other  class  of  men  since  the  Apostles 
fell  asleep. 

To  Luther,  and  the  Reformation  he  conducted,  under 
God,  are  modern  freemen  also  indebted  for  the  privilege 
of  thinking,  believing,  preaching  and  worshiping,  as  con- 
science and  Scripture  may  direct,  without  danger  of  being 
burned  for  blasphemy,  or  having  their  bones  broken  for 
heresy.  When  Luther  stood  before  the  august  Diet  of 
Worms  on  trial  for  his  faith,  the  liberties  of  the  world 
trembled  in  his  lone  heart.  And  when  he  lifted  up  his 
hand  before  God,  in  the  face  of  all  Europe's  potentates, 
and  declared  in  solemn  oath,  that,  unless  convinced  by 
clear  testimonies  of  holy  Scripture  and  solid  reasons,  he 
could  not  and  would  not  retract,  modern  freedom  drew  its 
first  breath,  and  independence  once  more  began  to  pulsate 
in  the  arteries  of  man. 

A  Romish  writer  bears  witness,  that  "  Luther  has  been 
the  restorer  of  liberty  in  modern  times;"  that  "  if  he  did 
not  create,  he  at  least  courageously  affixed  his  signature  to 
that  great  revolution,  which  rendered  the  right  of  exami- 
nation lawful  in  Europe;"  and  that  "if  we  at  this  day 
exercise,  in  all  its  plenitude,  this  first  and  highest  privi- 
lege of  human  intelligence,  it  is  to  him  we  are  mostly  in- 
debted for  it." 

Nor  is  the  Lutheran  Church  any  less  distinguished  for 
her  patronage  of  learning,  and  her  contributions  to  theol- 
ogy and  science,  than  in  the  particulars  just  cited.  Her 
literature  is  the  richest  in  the  world.  "The  Romish 
Church,"  says  Lange,  "is  the  Church  of  priests;  the 
Lutheran  Church  is  the  Church  of  Theologians."  Her 
universities  have  been  the  glory  of  Germany  for  the  last 
three  hundred  years ;  and  her  critics  and  religious  teachers 
have  been  the  leading  instructors  of  Christendom  from 
the  days  of  Luther  until  now. 


THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHUECH.   71 

These  Churches  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  generally 
have  connected  with  them  the  name  of  Luther,  and  are 
often  called  Lutherans,  or  Lutheran  Churches.  This  title 
was  first  applied  by  Romanists,  as  an  expression  of  disre- 
spect and  derision.  It  is  no  part  of  the  proper  designa- 
tion of  these  Churches.  As  a  party  name,  over  against 
the  proper  historical  Church,  they  protest  against  it,  and 
reject  it.  They  claim  to  be  simply  the  Evangelical 
Church,  as  distinguished  from  a  church  which  rests  upon 
tradition,  popes,  or  human  idiosyncrasies.  Luther  was 
wholly  unwilling  to  have  his  name  used  as  a  sectarian 
watchword.  "  I  beg,"  says  he,  "that  my  name  may  be 
passed  in  silence,  and  that  people  call  themselves  not 
Lutherans,  but  Christians.  Who  is  Luther?  The  doc- 
trine is  not  mine ;  I  have  not  been  crucified  for  any  one. 
Why,  then,  should  the  children  of  Christ  take  the  unhal- 
lowed name  of  a  frail,  vile  mortal  like  me?  Do  it  not; 
let  us  put  away  party  names,  and  bear  the  name  of  Christ, 
whose  doctrine  we  hold." 

And  yet,  there  is  a  sense  in  which  the  name  of  Luther 
is  significant  and  dear.  Being  historically  associated  with 
the  restoration  of  the  pure  Gospel,  and  the  exode  of  the 
Church  of  Christ  from  its  bondage  under  popery  and  su- 
perstition, Lutherans  feel  that  they  cannot  entirely  dis- 
card it.  With  the  pious  George,  the  Margrave  of  Bran- 
denburg, they  say,  "  We  were  not  baptized  in  the  name 
of  Luther.  He  is  not  our  God  and  Saviour.  We  do  not 
rest  our  faith  in  him.  And,  therefore,  in  this  sense,  we 
are  no  IMtherans.  But  if  it  be  asked  whether,  with  heart 
and  lips,  we  profess  the  doctrines  which  God  restored  to 
light  through  the  instrumentality  of  his  blessed  servant, 
Dr.  Martin  Luther,  we  neither  hesitate,  nor  are  we 
ashamed  to  call  ourselves  Lutherans.  In  this  sense  we 
are,  and  while  we  live,  will  remain  Lutherans." 


72  THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

The  great  cardinal  principles  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
are  thus  summed  up  by  one  of  its  writers : 

1.  An  open  Bible,  man's  only  guide  to  heaven;  as  elo- 
quently affirmed  in  the  Formula  of  Concord,  where  it  is 
said :  "  We  receive  and  adopt,  with  all  the  heart,  the  pro- 
phetic and  apostolic  writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, as  the  clear  and  pure  fountains  of  Israel;  and 
hold,  that  these  sacred  Scriptures  alone  are  the  true  and 
infallible  rule  by  which  all  teachers  and  doctrines  are  to 
be  tried  and  judged." 

2.  Private  judgment,  man's  inalienable  birthright;  as  so 
thrillingly  asserted  by  Luther  before  the  Diet  of  Worms, 
and  so  vigorously  re-echoed  in  the  Protest  of  the  Princes 
at  the  Diet  of  Spires. 

3.  Christ  and  Him  crucified,  man's  only  Saviour;   as 
unequivocally  affirmed  and  taught  in  all  the  Symbols  and 
accepted  theologians  of  the  Church,  which  never  cease  to 
refer  to  Christ  as  true  God  and  true  man  in  one  Person, 
who  is  "  the  only  Propitiator  and  Mediator  ordained  be- 
tween  God  and  man,  the  only  Saviour,  the  only  High 
Priest  and  Advocate  before  God." 

4.  Faith  in  Christ,  man's  only  availing  righteousness ;  as 
everywhere  declared  by  the  Lutheran  Symbols,  "  that  we 
cannot  obtain  forgiveness  of  sins  and  righteousness  before 
God  through  our  strength,  merits  and  works ;  but  that  we 
are  pardoned  and  justified  gratuitously  for  Christ's  sake 
through  faith ;"  "  that  faith  is  the  sole  medium  and  in- 
strument by  which  we  apprehend  Christ ;"  and  that  "  this 
faith  is  not  a  bare  historic  knowledge  of  Christ,  but  a 
divine  gift,  by  which  we  truly  apprehend  Christ  our  Re- 
deemer, as  presented  in  the  Gospel  message,  and  trust  in 
him,  for  the  sake  of  whose  righteousness  alone  our  sins 
are  graciously  forgiven,  we  are  justified  before  God  the 
Father,  and  entitled  to  expect  eternal  salvation." 


THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.  78 

The  Lutheran  Church  has  but  few  special  peculiarities. 
It  is  presented  as  her  chief  characteristic  that  she  aims  at 
exhibiting  a  full,  rotund,  and  complete  Christianity,  in  a 
form  in  all  directions  true  to  the  word  and  appointments 
of  its  Divine  Author,  and  conformed  to  the  common  ne- 
cessities of  man,  in  all  ages,  in  all  places,  and  in  all  cir- 
cumstances. 

One  of  her  authors  says  of  her :  "  Taking  the  deepest 
and  broadest  foundations  of  the  Christian  religion,  and 
working  ever  from  its  inner  essence  and  spirit,  there  is 
nothing  good  or  praiseworthy  iii  faith  or  practice  which 
does  not  harmonize  with  her,  or  which  may  not  be  realized 
as  her  own  proper  fruit.  She  held  and  taught  a  sovereign 
salvation,  by  grace  only,  before  Calvin  was  freed  from  the 
shackles  of  papal  superstition.  She  confessed  and  be- 
lieved that  Jesus  Christ  tasted  death  for  every  man,  be- 
fore Arminius  was  born.  She  approved  and  practiced  the 
holding  of  meetings  for  prayer  and  mutual  edification,  be- 
fore there  was  a  Wesley,  or  any  followers  of  his  method. 
She  had  her  Liturgies  and  forms  of  devotion, — the  models 
and  sources  of  the  best  that  have  followed, — when  Eng- 
land was  yet  in  the  arms  of  the  papacy,  and  the  English 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  had  not  been  thought  of.  She 
had  her  bishops  before  there  were  any  Episcopalians,  so- 
called,  though  ever  denying  that  diocesan  Episcopacy  is  at 
all  necessary  to  the  integrity  of  the  Church.  In  govern- 
ment, she  prescribes  for  the  pure  preaching  of  the  Word, 
und  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments  according  to 
that  Word,  but  leaves  all  questions  of  outward  forms  to 
be  regulated  as  the  circumstances  may  render  most  con- 
venient or  desirable.  And  in  all  things  she  is  as  many- 
sided  as  the  graces  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  the  glorious 
character  of  her  Lord. 

"  Her  name  is  Evangelical,  and  her  office  in  the  world 


74  THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

is  EVANGELIZATION,  according  to  Christ's  own  word  and 
commandments.  In  fulfillment  of  this  office,  she  ap- 
proaches men,  while  yet  in  the  helplessness  of  infancy,  and 
marks  them  with  God's  token  and  seal  of  mercy  in  the 
Holy  Sacrament  of  Baptism,  teaching  that  ( children  are 
thereby  consecrated  to  God,  and  received  into  His  favor ;' — 
gathers  them  into  classes  and  schools  for  instruction  in 
the  things  of  faith  and  piety  as  their  minds  unfold, — and, 
as  soon  as  the  evidences  of  fitness  appear,  introduces  them 
into  full  fellowship  and  communion  by  the  solemn  rite  of 
Confirmation.  She  builds  sanctuaries,  and  delights  in 
ornamenting  and  embellishing  them  with  every  pure  art, 
for  the  honor  and  glory  of  God,  and  educates  her  young 
men  of  suitable  gifts  and  spiritual  graces,  to  serve  in  them 
as  pastors  and  teachers,  whom  she  solemnly  and  officially 
sets  apart  for  their  office  by  laying  on  of  hands  and  prayer. 
She  sets  forward  her  pulpits,  and  the  preaching  of  the 
Word,  as  the  great  central  and  divinely-instituted  power 
of  the  Gospel.  She  puts  '  psalms  and  hymns  and  spir- 
itual songs'  into  the  lips  of  her  people,  to  strengthen 
their  faith,  exercise  their  devotional  feelings,  and  refresh 
their  souls.  She  calls  upon  all  her  members,  at  convenient 
intervals,  to  renew  their  profession  at  the  sacred  altar  of 
that  one  sacrifice  of  our  Lord,  of  which  it  is  the  privilege 
of  men  to  participate  in  the  Holy  Supper.  She  watches 
over  them  with  a  godly  and  merciful  discipline  and  ma- 
ternal solicitude  while  they  live.  And,  finally,  when  their 
race  is  run,  she  lays  their  bodies  down  with  solemn  care 
in  the  house  of  the  dead, — '  earth  to  earth,  ashes  to  ashes, 
dust  to  dust' — looking  for  the  resurrection  of  the  last 
day,  and  the  life  of  the  world  to  come,  through  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.  And  whatever  on  earth  can  contribute  to 
the  furtherance  or  establishment  of  the  doctrine  and  truth 
of  God,  among  the  civilized  or  savage,  at  home  or  abroad, 


THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.  75 

and  whatever  may  add  to  the  true  comfort  and  peace  of 
man,  she  always  lays  hold  of  as  an  instrument  for  her 
service,  and  sanctifies  it  unto  the  Lord. 

"  She  claims,  that  the  Gospel  can  live  and  flourish  in 
connection  with  the  State,  with  all  the  embarrassments 
which  such  an  unnatural  relation  entails,  and  that  it  can 
live  and  flourish  in  entire  separation  from  it.  She  con- 
sents to  all  established  government,  whether  despotic  and 
monarchical,  or  free  and  republican,  as  lawful,  and,  for  the 
end  of  government,  an  ordinance  of  God,  to  be  obeyed  in 
all  matters  not  touching  the  direct  obligations  of  con- 
science to  the  great  Judge  of  all,  as  a  part  of  every 
Christian's  duty.  She  proclaims  in  her  principal  Confes- 
sion, '  that  Christians  may  hold  either  legislative,  judicial 
or  executive  offices  without  sin ;  may  decide  causes,  pro- 
nounce judgments,  and  punish  transgressors,  agreeably  to 
imperial  or  other  established  laws;  may  wage  just  wars, 
and  serve  in  them,  make  lawful  contracts,  take  oaths  when 
required,  hold  property,  marry,  and  be  married.'  She 
stringently  denies  that  a  higher  holiness  is  to  be  obtained 
by  an  abandonment  of  the  ordinary  stations,  relations  and 
duties  of  life,  or  that  God  cannot  be  as  well  and  purely 
served  in  them  as  in  separation  from  them.  Nor  does  she 
suppose  that  the  true  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  has  ceased 
to  be,  where  imperfect  or  spurious  members  may  be  found 
among  the  confessors  of  his  name." 

In  agreement  with  this,  it  was  the  remark  of  an  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  respecting  the  Lutheran  Church,  that  r1 
"  breathes  the  free  spirit  of  Luther,  and  the  mild  spirit  of 
Melancthon ;"  occupying  the  ground  of  a  great  mediator 
for  the  truth  between  many  conflicting  parties.  It  is 
claimed  that  she  has  successfully  laid  a  doctrinal,  litur- 
gical, and  government  basis,  which  leaves  no  possible  ex- 
cuse lor  sectarianism ;  that  the  Episcopalian  can  come  into 


76  THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

her  communion,  and  yet  feel  that  he  has  in  no  way  de- 
parted from  the  Church,  and  find  much  more  solid  and 
unequivocal  instruction  than  his  own  standards  contain ; 
that  the  Dissenter  may  worship  at  her  altars,  without  be- 
ing oppressed  and  outraged  with  rigid,  weakening,  corrupt, 
or  invariable  forms,  and  yet  come  into  much  closer  and 
wholesome  contact  with  the  proper  Church;  that  the  Pres- 
byterian may  hear  of  her  preachers  his  favorite  theme  of 
sovereign  grace,  freed  from  the  repulsive  and  questionable 
forms  and  inferences  with  which  his  Confession  accom- 
panies it,  and  learn  lessons  concerning  the  Sacraments 
about  which  he  is  too  much  in  the  dark ;  that  the  Metho- 
dist may  find  food  in  her  pastures  to  give  consistency  to 
his  fervor,  and  in  her  treasures  the  original  sources  of 
what  he  most  admires  in  Wesley,  without  the  unchurch- 
liness  and  one-sided  subjectivism  with  which  he  is  some- 
times reproached ;  that  for  all  men,  there  is  not  on  earth 
a  more  reliable,  well-tried  and  satisfactory  guide  to  the 
full  truth,  a  sanctified  life,  and  everlasting  salvation,  than 
that  which  is  presented  in  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church,  wherever  she  is  properly  herself;  that  what  she 
demands,  is  what  no  one  may  neglect  or  despise  without 
danger  to  his  soul ;  and  that  in  nothing  does  she  so 
heartily  rejoice,  as  in  the  triumph  of  the  simple  truth  as 
it  is  in  Jesus,  uuwilted  by  sectarian  bigotries,  and  unmu- 
tilated  by  the  proud  presumptuous  hand  of  rationalizing 
philosophy,  or  by  the  enervations  of  a  mistaken  liberalism. 
The  Lutheran  Church  accordingly  claims  to  be  Catholic 
and  not  sectarian.  The  only  notes  and  marks  which  she 
finds  for  the  Church  properly  so  called,  are  "the  pure  and 
sound  doctrine  of  the  Gospel,  and  the  right  use  of  the 
Sacraments."  It  is  part  of  her  Confession,  that,  "  for  the 
true  unity  of  the  Christian  Church,  it  is  not  necessary 
that  uniform  ceremonies,  instituted  by  mou,  should  be 


THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.  77 

everywhere  observed."  All  that  she  requires  on  this 
point  is,  that  the  saying  of  Paul,  Eph.  iv.  4,  5,  be  re- 
alized :  "  One  body  and  one  Spirit,  even  as  ye  are  called 
in  one  hope  of  your  calling;  one  Lord,  one  Faith,  one 
Baptism."  As  expressed  by  the  Wurternburg  Confessors, 
"  We  think  that  men  are  to  judge  by  the  authority,  both 
of  the  Holy  Scripture  and  of  the  ancient  fathers,  that  the 
true  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church  is  not  tied  to  one  cer- 
tain place  or  nation.  Where  the  Gospel  of  Christ  is  sin- 
cerely preached,  and  His  sacraments  rightly  administered 
according  to  his  institution,  where  the  Word  of  God  is 
preached,  and  where  the  Gospel  is  acknowledged  by  faith, 
there  God  hath  his  Church,  wherein  he  is  effectual  unto 
eternal  life." 

The  Lutherans  do  not  claim  that  theirs  is  the  only  true 
Church.  In  the  Apology  of  their  chief  Confession,  it  is 
said:  "We  affirm,  and  know  in  truth,  that  there  are  chil- 
dren of  God  scattered  throughout  all  the  world,  in  vari- 
ous kingdoms,  islands,  countries  and  cities,  from  the  rising 
to  the  setting  of  the  sun,  who  truly  know  Christ  and  the 
Gospel.  .  .  And  although  among  those  built  upon  the 
right  foundation,  that  is,  on  Christ  and  the  faith,  there 
are  many  weak  ones,  who  build  upon  this  foundation 
wood,  hay  and  stubble,  that  is,  certain  human  conceits 
and  opinions,  nevertheless,  as  they  do  not  thereby  over- 
throw or  thrust  aside  the  foundation,  Christ,  they  are  still 
Christians,  and  may  be  forgiven  such  defects.  .  .  Thus 
even  the  Fathers  sometimes  build  hay  and  stubble  upon 
the  foundation,  not  intending,  however,  thereby  to  over- 
throw it.  .  .  Hence,  we  conclude,  according  to  the  Scrip- 
tures, that  the  true  Christian  Church  is  the  company  of 
those,  throughout  all  the  world,  who  really  believe  the 
Gospel  of  Christ,  and  have  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  .  . 
We  may  be  pious,  holy  and  just,  the  children  of  God  and 

7* 


78  THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

Christians,  without  observing  the  same  ceremonies  that 
are  in  use  in  other  Churches.  .  .  People  can  be  in  the 
Church  of  Christ  even  though  they  do  not  wear  German 
or  French  garments." 

The  Lutheran  Church  has  her  Church-year,  in  harmony 
with  the  Ancient  Churches,  in  which  she  seeks  to  re- 
flect, in  her  computation  of  times  and  seasons,  the  course 
and  progress  of  salvation  both  in  the  acts  of  Jesus  and  in 
the  renewal  of  the  soul  and  life.  She  has  her  appointed 
festivals  of  her  Saviour's  birth,  and  of  the  showing  forth 
of  his  grace  and  power.  She  has  her  fixed  period  for 
coming  into  special  sympathy  with  his  great  humiliation 
and  passion,  in  taking  her  guilt  upon  him,  and  making 
himself  an  offering  for  her  sins.  She  has  her  allotted 
days  for  the  glad  commemoration  of  his  triumphant  res- 
urrection and  ascension,  and  of  the  outpouring  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  in  fulfillment  of  his  gracious  promises.  She 
has  her  time  for  the  special  celebration  of  the  adorable 
Trinity  and  the  attributes  of  a  life  fully  consecrated  to 
Him.  She  does  not  canonize  or  worship  saints,  but  re- 
members those  whose  faith  she  is  to  follow,  and  such  as 
have  by  their  lives  and  labors  illustrated  the  way  of  holi- 
ness, and  left  the  impress  of  their  good  deeds  upon  the 
world.  She  has  her  regular  Pericopes,  or  Lessons  of 
Holy  Scripture,  designated  for  every  week,  and  for  the 
special  celebration  of  each  great  fact  by  which  salvation 
was  achieved,  and  on  which  the  faith  of  the  Church  re- 
poses. Leaving  the  Jewish  Sabbath  as  no  longer  binding 
in  its  ancient  form,  she  follows  the  example  of  the  Apos- 
tles and  the  early  Church,  in  setting  apart  the  first  day  of 
the  week  as  holy  unto  the  Lord,  in  which  secular  em- 
ployments and  cares  are  to  be  laid  aside,  and  God,  His 
word,  and  His  worship  made  to  occupy  and  fill  the  atten- 
tion. And  in  all  these  things  she  seeks  to  exemplify  and 


THE  EVANGELICAL  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.  79 

perpetuate  a  living  and  true  Christianity,  first  of  all  ful- 
filling what  Christ  has  commanded  and  enjoined,  and 
then  conforming  to  the  truest,  best,  and  most  wholesome 
convictions  and  developments  of  the  Church  itself  in  the 
purest  periods  of  its  history  and  worthiest  portions  from 
the  beginning  onward. 

It  is  the  habit  of  some  to  speak  and  think  disparagingly 
of  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  to  assign  it  the  position  of 
an  obscure  sect,  differing  but  little  from  Romanists,  and 
scarcely  any  longer  existing.  This  is  altogether  un- 
warranted by  the  facts.  So  far  from  being  a  mere  obscure 
sect,  the  Lutheran  Church  is  the  oldest  and  largest  of  all 
Protestant  denominations.  She  cannot  be  rightly  reckoned 
as  a  mere  branch  of  the  Protestant  Church ;  for,  as  re- 
marked by  one  of  her  theologians,  she  is  the  great  body  and 
trunk  of  it.  Christianity,  in  its  Protestant  form,  started 
with  her ;  and  from  her  have  all  the  Protestant  Churches 
derived  their  being  as  Protestant  Churches.  Neither 
has  she  become  lost  in  branches  which  have  absorbed  her 
strength  and  diverted  her  proper  historic  continuation. 
Up  to  this  present  moment,  she  is  the  massive  and  living 
trunk  still.  She  possesses  more  territory  now  than  any 
other  two  of  the  great  Protestant  families,  and  embraces 
a  larger  population  than  all  other  orthodox  communions 
combined.  From  fifty  to  sixty  millions  of  souls  are  at 
this  hour  under  her  spiritual  care  and  training,  and  about 
thirty  millions  are  enrolled  as  communicants  at  her  altars. 
Nor  has  there  ever  been  a  people  who  more  earnestly  or 
more  effectively  protested  against  the  errors  of  Rome. 

In  the  United  States,  the  Lutheran  Church  stands 
fourth  in  the  list  of  denominations ;  the  Baptists,  Metho- 
dists and  Presbyterians  alone  exceeding  the  Lutherans  in 
numbers.  It  embraces  fifty-four  synods,  four  general  or- 
ganizations, and  more  than  500,000  communicants.  It 


80  METHODISTS. 

has  (1872)  seven  theological  seminaries,  sixteen  colleges, 
six  seminaries  for  youug  ladies,  six  publication  establish- 
ments, and  twenty-nine  regular  periodicals.  Among  its 
living  theologians  are,  Drs.  C.  F.  and  C.  W.  Schaeffer, 
W.  J.  Mann,  C.  P.  Krauth  and  J.  A.  Seiss,  of  Phila- 
delphia; Drs.  S.  S.  Schmucker,  J.  A.  Brown  and  M.  Val- 
entine, of  Gettysburg;  Drs.  G.  F.  Krotel  and  H.  I. 
Schmidt,  of  New  York;  Dr.  J.  G.  Morris,  of  Baltimore; 
Dr.  F.  A.  Muhlenberg,  of  Allentown,  Dr.  W.  A.  Passa- 
vant,  of  Pittsburg,  and  Dr.  E.  G.  Green wald,  of  Lancaster, 
Pa. ;  Dr.  C.  F.  Walther,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  Dr.  Bittle,  of 
Salem,  Va.,  and  Dr.  A.  E.  Eude,  of  Columbia,  S.  C. 


METHODISTS. 

IT  is  not  generally  known  that  the  name  of  Methodist 
had  been  given  long  before  to  a  religious  sect  in  England, 
or,  at  least,  to  a  party  in  religion  which  was  distinguished 
by  some  of  the  same  marks  as  are  now  supposed  to  apply 
to  the  Methodists.  John  Spence,  who  was  librarian  of 
Sion  College  in  1657,  in  a  book  which  he  published,  says, 
"  Where  are  now  our  Anabaptists  and  plain  pikestaff  Me- 
thodists, who  esteem  all  flowers  of  rhetoric  in  sermons  no 
better  than  stinking  weeds  ?"  But  the  denomination  to 
which  we  here  refer  was  founded  in  the  year  1729,  by  one 
Mr.  Morgan  and  Mr.  John  Wesley.  In  the  month  of 
November  that  year,  the  latter,  being  then  fellow  of  Lin- 
coln College,  began  to  spend  some  evenings  in  reading  the 
Greek  Testament  with  Charles  Wesley,  student,  Mr.  Mor- 
gan, commoner  of  Christ  Church,  and  Mr.  Kirkham,  of 
Merton  College.  Not  long  afterwards,  two  or  three  of  the 


METHODISTS.  81 

pupils  of  Mr.  John  Wesley  obtained  leave  to  attend  these 
meetings.  They  then  began  to  visit  the  sick  in  different 
parts  of  the  town,  and  the  prisoners  also,  who  were  con- 
fined in  the  castle.  Two  years  after  they  were  joined  by 
Mr.  Ingham,  of  Queen's  College,  Mr.  Broughton,  and  Mr. 
Hervey ;  and  in  1735  by  the  celebrated  Mr.  Whitfield, 
then  in  his  eighteenth  year.  At  this  time  their  number  in 
Oxford  amounted  to  about  fourteen.  They  obtained  their 
name  from  the  exact  regularity  of  their  lives,  which  gave 
occasion  to  a  young  gentleman  of  Christ  Church  to  say, 
"  Here  is  a  new  sect  of  Methodists  sprung  up  ! "  alluding 
to  a  sect  of  ancient  physicians  who  were  called  Methodists, 
because  they  reduced  the  whole  healing  art  to  a  few  com- 
mon principles,  and  brought  it  into  some  method  and  order. 
At  the  time  that  this  society  was  formed,  it  is  said  that 
the  whole  kingdom  of  England  was  tending  fast  to  infi- 
delity. "It  is  come,"  says  Bishop  Butler,  "I  know  not 
how,  to  be  taken  for  granted  by  many  persons  that  Chris- 
tianity is  not  so  much  as  a  subject  of  inquiry;  but  that  it 
is  now  at  length  discovered  to  be  fictitious ;  and  accord- 
ingly they  treat  it  as  if,  in  the  present  age,  this  were  an 
agreement  among  all  people  of  discernment,  and  nothing 
remained  but  to  set  it  up  as  a  principal  subject  of  mirth 
and  ridicule,  as  it  were,  by  way  of  reprisals  for  its  having 
BO  long  interrupted  the  pleasures  of  the  world."  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  the  Methodists  were  the  in- 
struments of  stemming  this  torrent.  The  sick  and  the 
poor  also  tasted  the  fruits  of  their  labors  and  benevolence. 
Mr.  Wesley  abridged  himself  of  all  his  superfluities,  and 
proposed  a  fund  for  the  relief  of  the  indigent;  and  so 
prosperous  was  the  scheme,  that  they  quickly  increased 
their  fund  to  eighty  pounds  per  annum.  This,  which  one 
should  have  thought  would  have  been  attended  with  praise 
instead  of  censure,  quickly  drew  upon  them  a  kind  of  per- 

F 


82  METHODTSTS. 

secution ;  some  of  the  seniors  of  the  university  began  to 
interfere,  and  it  was  reported  "  that  the  college  censors 
were  going  to  blow  up  the  godly  club"  They  found  them 
selves,  however,  patronized  and  encouraged  by  some  men 
eminent  for  their  learning  and  virtue ;  so  that  the  society 
still  continued,  though  they  had  suffered  a  severe  loss,  in 
1730,  by  the  death  of  Mr.  Morgan,  who,  it  is  said,  was  the 
founder  of  it.  In  October,  1735,  John  and  Charles  Wes- 
ley, Mr.  Ingham,  and  Mr.  Delamotte,  son  of  a  merchant 
in  London,  embarked  for  Georgia,  in  order  to  preach  the 
gospel  to  the  Indians.  After  their  arrival  they  were  at 
first  favorably  received,  but  in  a  short  time  lost  the  affec- 
tion of  the  people ;  and,  on  account  of  some  differences 
with  the  storekeeper,  Mr.  Wesley  was  obliged  to  return  to 
England.  Mr.  Wesley,  however,  was  soon  succeeded  by 
Mr.  Whitfield,  whose  repeated  labors  in  that  part  of  the 
world  are  well  known. 

After  Mr.  Whitfield  returned  from  America  in  1741,  he 
declared  his  full  assent  to  the  doctrines  of  Calvin.  Mr. 
Wesley,  on  the  contrary,  professed  the  Arminian  doctrine, 
and  had  printed  in  favor  of  perfection  and  universal  re- 
demption, and  very  strongly  against  election  —  a  doctrine 
•which  Mr.  Whitfield  believed  to  be  scriptural.  The  differ- 
ence, therefore,  of  sentiments  between  these  two  great 
men,  caused  a  separation.  Mr.  Wesley  preaohed  in  a  place 
called  the  Foundry,  where  Mr.  Whitfield  preached  but 
once,  and  no  more.  Mr.  Whitfield  then  preached  to  very 
large  congregations  out  of  doors,  and  soon  after,  in  con- 
nection with  Mr.  Cennick,  and  one  or  two  more,  began  a 
new  house  in  Kingswood,  Gloucestershire,  and  established 
a  school  that  favored  Calvinistic  preachers.  The  Method 
ists,  therefore,  were  now  divided ;  one  part  following  Mr. 
Wesley,  and  the  other  Mr.  Whitfield. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Wesleyau  Methodists,  according  to 


METHODISTS.  8? 

tlieir  <y\vTi  account,  are  the  same  as  the  Church  of  England, 
as  set  forth  in  her  liturgy,  articles,  and  homilies.     This, 
however,  has  been  disputed.     Mr.  Wesley,  in  his  appeal  to 
men  of  reason  and  religion,  thus  declares  his  sentiments : 
"All  I  teach,"  he  observes,  "respects  either  the  nature 
and  condition  of  justification,  the  nature  and  condition  of 
salvation,  the  nature  of  justifying  and  saving  faith,  or  the 
Author  of  faith  and  salvation.    That  justification  whereof 
our  articles  and  homilies  speak  signifies  present  forgive- 
ness, and  consequently  acceptance  with  God :   I  believe 
the  condition  of  this  is  faith :  I  mean  not  only  that  with- 
out faith  we  cannot  be  justified,  but  also  that,  as  soon  as 
any  one  has  true  faith,  in  that  moment  he  is  justified. 
Good  works  follow  this  faith,  but  cannot  go  before  it; 
much  less   can  sanctification,  which  implies  a  continued 
course  of  good  works,  springing  from  holiness  of  heart. 
But  it  is  allowed  that  sanctification  goes  before  our  justi- 
fication at  the  last  day,  Heb.  xii.  14.     Repentance,  and 
fruits  meet  for  repentance,  go  before  faith.     Repentance 
absolutely  must  go  before  faith ;  fruits  meet  for  it,  if  there 
be  opportunity.     By  repentance  I  mean  conviction  of  sin, 
producing  real  desires  and  sincere  resolutions  of  amend- 
ment ;  by  salvation,  I  mean  not  barely  deliverance  from 
hell,  but  a  present  deliverance  from  sin.     Faith,  in  gene- 
ral, is  a  divine  supernatural  evidence,  or  conviction  of 
things  not  seen,  not  discoverable  by  our  bodily  sensed : 
justifying  faith  implies  not  only  a  divine  evidence  or  con- 
viction that  God  was  in  Christ  reconciling  the  world  unto 
himself,  but  a  sure  trust  and  confidence  that  Christ  died 
for  my  sins,  that  he  loved  me,  and  gave  himself  for  me. 
And  the  moment  a  penitent  sinner  believes  this,  God  par- 
dons and  absolves  him  ;  and  as  soon  as  his  pardon  or  justi- 
fication is  witnessed  to  him  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  is  saved. 


84  METHODISTS. 

From  that  time  (unless  he  make  shipwreck  of  the  faith) 
salvation  gradually  increases  in  his  soul. 

"  The  Author  of  faith  and  salvation  is  God  alone. 
There  is  no  more  of  power  than  of  merit  in  man ;  but  as 
all  merit  is  in  the  Son  of  God,  in  what  he  has  done  and 
buffered  for  us,  so  all  power  is  in  the  Spirit  of  God.  And, 
therefore,  every  man,  in  order  to  believe  unto  salvation, 
must  receive  the  Holy  Ghost."  So  far  Mr.  Wesley.  Re 
Bpecting  original  sin,  free  will,  the  justification  of  men, 
good  works,  and  works  done  before  justification,  he  refers 
us  to  what  is  said  on  these  subjects  in  the  former  part  of 
the  ninth,  the  tenth,  the  eleventh,  the  twelfth,  and  thir- 
teenth articles  of  the  Church  of  England.  One  of  Mr. 
Wesley's  preachers  bears  this  testimony  of  him  and  his 
sentiments :  "The  gospel,  considered  as  a  general  plan  of 
salvation,  he  viewed  as  a  display  of  the  divine  perfections, 
m  a  way  agreeable  to  the  nature  of  God ;  in  which  all  the 
divine  attributes  harmonize,  and  shine  forth  with  peculiar 
lustre.  The  gospel,  considered  as  a  means  to  attain  an 
end,  appeared  to  him  to  discover  as  great  fitness  in  the 
means  to  the  end  as  can  possibly  be  discovered  in  the 
structure  of  natural  bodies,  or  in  the  various  operations  of 
nature,  from  a  view  of  which  we  draw  our  arguments  for 
the  existence  of  God.  Man  he  viewed  as  blind,  ignorant, 
wandering  out  of  the  way,  with  his  mind  estranged  from 
Go  1.  He  considered  the  gospel  as  a  dispensation  of 
mercy  to  men,  holding  forth  pardon,  a  free  pardon  of  sin 
to  all  who  repent  and  believe  in  Christ  Jesus.  The  gos- 
pel, he  believed,  inculcates  universal  holiness  both  in  heart 
und  in  the  conduct  of  life.  He  showed  a  mind  well  in- 
structed in  the  oracles  of  God,  and  well  acquainted  with 
••-uman  nature.  He  contended  that  the  first  step  to  be  a 
Christian  is  to  repent;  and  that,  till  a  man  is  convinced 
ot  tiie  evil  of  sin,  and  is  determined  to  depart  from  it ; 


METHODISTS.  85 

till  he  is  convinced  that  there  is  a  beauty  in  holiness,  and 
something  truly  desirable  in  being:  reconciled  to  God,  he  is 
not  prepared  to  receive  Christ.  The  second  important  and 
necessary  step,  he  believed  to  be  faith,  agreeable  to  the 
order  of  the  apostle,  '  Repentance  toward  God.  and  faith 
toward  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,'  Acts  xx.  20,  21.  In  ex- 
plaining sanctification,  he  accurately  distinguished  it  from 
justification,  or  the  pardon  of  sin.  Justification  admits 
us  into  a  state  of  grace  and  favor  with  G'  J,  and  lays  the 
foundation  of  sanctification,  or  Christian  holiness,  in  all  its 
extent.  There  has  been  a  great  clamor  raised  against  him, 
because  he  called  his  view  of  sanctification  by  the  word 
perfection  ;  but  he  often  explained  what  he  meant  by  this 
term.  He  meant  by  the  word  perfection,  such  a  degree 
of  the  love  of  God,  and  the  love  of  man ;  such  a  degree 
of  the  love  of  justice,  truth,  holiness,  and  purity,  as  will 
remove  from  the  heart  every  contrary  disposition  towards 
God  or  man ;  and  that  this  should  be  our  state  of  mind  in 
every  situation,  and  in  every  circumstance  of  life.  Ha 
maintained  that  God  is  a  God  of  love,  not  to  a  part  of  his 
creatures  only,  but  to  all ;  that  He  who  is  the  Father  of 
all,  who  made  all,  Avho  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  all 
his  creatures,  loves  them  all ;  that  He  loved  the  world, 
and  gave  his  Son  a  ransom  for  all  without  distinction  of 
persons.  It  appeared  to  him,  that  to  represent  God  as 
partial,  as  confining  his  love  to  a  few,  was  unworthy  oui 
notions  of  the  Deity.  He  maintained  that  Christ  died  for 
all  men ;  that  he  is  to  be  offered  to  all ;  that  all  are  to  be 
invited  to  come  to  him ;  and  that  whosoever  comes  in  the 
way  which  God  has  appointed,  may  partake  of  his  bless- 
ings.  He  supposed  that  sufficient  grace  is  given  to  all,  in 
that  way  and  manner  which  is  best  adapted  to  influence 
the  mind.  He  did  not  believe  salvation  was  by  works.  So 
far  was  he  from  putting  works  in  the  place  of  the  blood  of 
s 


rf6  METHODISTS. 

Christ,  that  he  only  gave  them  their  just  value :  he  consi- 
dered them  as  the  fruits  of  a  living,  operative  faith,  and 
as  the  measure  of  our  future  reward ;  for  every  man  will 
be  rewarded  not  for  his  works,  but  according  to  the  mea- 
sure of  them.  He  gave  the  whole  glory  of  salvation  to 
God  from  first  to  last.  He  believed  that  man  would  never 
turn  to  God,  if  God  did  not  begin  the  work :  he  often  said 
that  the  first  approaches  of  grace  to  the  mind  are  irresist- 
ible ;  that  is,  that  a  man  cannot  avoid  being  convinced 
that  he  is  a  sinner ;  that  God,  by  various  means,  awakens 
his  conscience ;  and,  whether  the  man  will  or  no,  these 
convictions  approach  him."  In  order  that  we  may  form 
still  clearer  ideas  respecting  Mr.  Wesley's  opinions,  we 
shall  here  quote  a  few  questions  and  answers  as  laid  down 
in  the  Minutes  of  Conference.  Q.  "In  what  sense  is 
Adam's  sin  imputed  to  all  mankind  ?  "  A.  "  In  Adam  all 
die,  i.  e.,  1.  Our  bodies  then  became  mortal.  2.  Our  souls 
died,  i.  e.,  were  disunited  from  God.  And  hence,  3.  We 
are  all  born  with  a  sinful,  devilish  nature ;  by  reason 
whereof,  4.  We  are  children  of  wrath,  liable  to  death 
eternal,"  Rom.  v.  18 ;  Eph.  ii.  3.  Q.  "  In  what  sense  is 
the  righteousness  of  Christ  imputed  to  all  mankind,  or  to 
believers  ?  "  A.  "  We  do  not  find  it  expressly  affirmed  in 
Scripture  that  God  imparts  the  righteousness  of  Christ  to 
any,  although  we  do  find  that  faith  is  imputed  for  right 
eousness.  That  text,  'As  by  one  man's  disobedience  all 
men  were  made  sinners,  so  by  the  obedience  of  one  all 
were  made  righteous,'  we  conceive,  means  by  the  merits  of 
Christ  all  men  are  cleared  from  the  guilt  of  Adam's  actual 
sin."  Q,  "  Can  faith  be  lost  but  through  disobedience  ?' 
A.  "  It  cannot.  A  believer  first  inwardly  disobeys ;  in- 
clines to  sin  with  his  heart ;  then  his  intercourse  with  God 
is  cut  off,  i.  e.  his  faith  is  lost ;  and  after  this  he  may  fall 
into  rutward  sin,  being  now  weak,  and  like  another  man." 


METHODISTS.  87 

Q.  "  What  ia  implied  in  being  a  perfect  Christian  ?  "  A. 
"  The  loving  the  Lord  our  God  with  all  our  heart,  and  with 
all  our  mind,  and  soul,  and  strength."  Q.  "  Does  this 
imply  that  all  inward  sin  is  taken  away  ?  "  A.  "  Without 
doubt ;  or  how  could  we  be  said  to  be  saved  from  all  owr 
uncleanness ? "  Ezek.  xxxvi.  29.  Q.  "How  much  is  al- 
lowed by  our  brethren  who  differ  from  us  with  regard  to 
entire  sanctification  ?  "  A.  "  They  grant,  1.  That  every 
one  must  be  entirely  sanctified  in  the  article  of  death.  2. 
That  till  then  a  believer  daily  grows  in  grace,  comes  nearer 
and  nearer  to  perfection.  3.  That  we  ought  to  be  conti- 
nually pressing  after  this,  and  to  exhort  all  others  to  d» 
BO."  Q.  "What  do  we  allow  them?"  A.  "We  grant,  1. 
That  many  of  those  who  have  died  in  the  faith,  yea,  the 
greater  part  of  those  we  have  known,  were  not  sanctified 
throughout,  not  made  perfect  in  love,  till  a  little  before 
death.  2.  That  the  term  sanctified  is  continually  applied 
by  St.  Paul  to  all  that  were  justified,  that  were  true  be- 
lievers. 3.  That  by  this  term  alone  he  rarely  (if  ever) 
means  saved  from  all  sin.  4.  That  consequently  it  is  not 
proper  to  use  it  in  this  sense,  without  adding  the  word 
'wholly,  entirely,'  or  the  like.  5.  That  the  inspired  wri- 
ters almost  continually  speak  of  or  to  those  who  were  just- 
ified, but  very  rarely  either  of  or  to  those  who  were  sanc- 
tified. 6.  That  it  consequently  behoves  us  to  speak  in 
public  almost  continually  of  the  state  of  justification ;  but 
more  rarely  in  full  and  explicit  terms  concerning  entire 
sanctification."  Q.  "What,  then,  is  the  point  wherein  we 
divide?"  A.  "It  is  this:  Whether  we  should  expect  to 
be  saved  from  all  sin  before  the  article  of  death."  Q.  "Is 
there  any  clear  Scripture  promise  of  this,  that  God  will 
save  us  from  all  sin  ?  "  A.  "  There  is.  Ps.  cxxx.  8:  '  He 
shall  redeem  Israel  from  all  his  iniquities.'  This  is  more 
largely  expressed  in  Ezek.  xxxvi.  25,  29 ;  2  Cor.  vii.  1 ; 


88  METHODISTS. 

Dcut.  xxx.  6;  1  John  iii.  8;  Eph.  v.  25,  27;  John  xvh. 
20,  23;  1  Johniv.  17." 

These  are  the  tenets  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  given 
in  their  own  words,  in  order  to  prevent  misrepresentation. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Calvinistic  Methodists  are  those  of 
Calvin. 

A  considerable  number  both  of  the  Calvinist  and  Ar- 
minian  Methodists  approve  of  the  discipline  of  the  Church 
of  England,  while  many,  it  is  said,  are  dissenters  in  prin- 
ciple. Mr.  Wesley  and  Mr.  Whitfield  were  both  brought 
up  in,  and  paid  peculiar  respect  to  that  Church.  They 
did  not,  however,  as  it  is  well  known,  confine  themselves 
to  her  laws  in  all  respects  as  it  related  to  discipline. 

Mr.  Wesley  having  formed  numerous  societies  in  different 
parts,  he,  with  his  brother  Charles,  drew  up  certain  rules, 
by  which  they  were,  and  it  seems  in  many  respects  still 
are,  governed.  They  state  the  nature  and  design  of  a 
Methodist  society  in  the  following  words  : 

"  Such  a  society  is  no  other  than  a  company  of  men 
having  the  form  and  seeking  the  power  of  godliness ; 
united  in  order  to  pray  together,  to  receive  the  word  of 
exhortation,  and  to  watch  over  one  another  in  love,  that 
they  may  help  each  other  to  work  out  their  own  salvation. 

"  That  it  may  the  more  easily  be  discerned  whether 
they  are  indeed  working  out  their  own  salvation,  each 
society  ia  divided  into  smaller  companies,  called  classes, 
according  to  their  respective  places  of  abode.  There  are 
about  twelve  persons  (sometimes  fifteen,  twenty,  or  even 
more)  in  each  class ;  one  of  whom  is  styled  their  leader. 
It  is  his  business,  1.  To  see  each  person  in  his  class  once 
a  week,  at  least,  in  order  to  inquire  how  their  souls  pros- 
per; to  advise,  reprove,  comfort,  or  exhort,  as  occasion 
may  require ;  to  receive  what  they  are  willing  to  give  to 
the  poor  or  toward  the  gospel  —  2.  To  meet  the  minister 


METHODISTS.  89 

and  the  stewards  of  the  society  once  a  week,  in  order  to 
inform  the  minister  of  any  that  are  sick,  or  of  any  that 
walk  disorderly  and  will  not  be  reproved ;  to  pay  to  the 
stewards  what  they  have  received  of  their  several  classes 
in  the  week  preceding ;  and  to  show  their  account  of  what 
each  person  has  contributed. 

"There  is  only  one  condition  previously  required  of 
those  who  desire  admission  into  these  societies :  namely,  a 
desire  to  flee  from  the  wrath  to  come ;  to  be  saved  from 
their  sins  :  but  wherever  this  is  really  fixed  in  the  soul,  it 
will  be  shown  by  its  fruits.  It  is,  therefore,  expected  of 
all  who  continue  therein,  that  they  should  continue  to  evi- 
dence their  desire  of  salvation. 

"  First,  By  doing  no  harm ;  by  avoiding  evil  in  every 
kind ;  especially  that  which  is  most  generally  practised, 
such  as  the  taking  the  name  of  God  in  vain ;  the  profaning 
the  day  of  the  Lord,  either  by  doing  ordinary  work  there- 
on, or  by  buying  or  selling ;  drunkenness  ;  buying  or  sell- 
ing spirituous  liquors,  or  drinking  them,  unless  in  cases 
of  extreme  necessity;  fighting,  quarrelling,  brawling; 
brother  going  to  laio  with  brother ;  returning  evil  for  evil. 
or  railing  for  railing ;  the  using  many  words  in  buying  or 
selling;  the  buying  or  selling  uncustomed  goods;  the 
giving  or  taking  things  on  usury,  i.  e.  unlawful  interest. 

11 Uncharitable  or  unprofitable  conversation;  particu- 
larly, speaking  evil  of  magistrates  or  of  ministers. 

"Doing  to  others  as  we  would  not  they  should  do 
unto  us. 

"  Doing  what  we  know  is  not  for  the  glory  of  God  ;  aa 
the  putting  on  gold  or  costly  apparel;  the  taking  su^h 
diversions  as  cannot  be  used  in  the  name  of  the  Lord 
Jesus. 

"  The  singing  those  songs,  or  reading  those  books,  which 
do  not  tend  to  the  knowledge  or  love  of  God ;  softness  and 


DO  METHODISTS. 

needless  ^elf-indulgence ;  laying  up  treasure  npoi>  finrth ; 
borrowing  without  a  probability  of  paying ;  or  taking  up 
goods  without  a  probability  of  paying  for  them. 

"It  is  expected  of  all  who  continue  in  these  societiei 
that  they  should  continue  to  evidence  their  desire  of 
salvation, 

Secondly,  By  doing  good  ;  by  being  in  every  kind  mer- 
ciful after  their  power,  as  they  have  opportunity ;  doing 
good  of  every  possible  sort,  and  as  far  as  possible  to  all 
men  :  to  their  bodies,  of  the  ability  which  God  giveth ;  by 
giving  food  to  the  hungry,  by  clothing  the  naked,  by  visit- 
ing or  helping  them  that  are  sick,  or  in  prison ;  to  their 
souls,  by  instructing,  reproving,  or  exhorting  all  we  have 
any  intercourse  with ;  trampling  under  foot  that  enthusi- 
astic doctrine  of  devils,  that  '  We  are  not  to  do  good, 
unless  our  hearts  be  free  to  it.' 

"  By  doing  good,  especially  to  them  that  are  of  the 
household  of  faith,  or  groaning  so  to  be ;  employing  them 
preferably  to  others  ;  buying  one  of  another  ;  helping  each 
other  in  business ;  and  so  much  the  more,  because  the 
•world  will  love  its  own,  and  them  only ;  by  all  possible 
diligence  and  frugality,  that  the  gospel  be  not  blamed  ;  by 
running  with  patience  the  race  set  before  them,  denying 
themselves  and  taking  up  their  cross  daily  ;  submitting  to 
bear  the  reproach  of  Christ;  to  be  as  the  filth  and  off- 
scouring  of  the  world,  and  looking  that  men  should  say  all 
manner  of  evil  of  them  falsely  for  the  Lord's  sake. 

"  It  is  expected  of  all  who  desire  to  continue  in  these 
societies,  that  they  should  continue  to  evidence  their  desire 
of  salvation. 

"  Thirdly,  By  attending  on  all  the  ordinances  of  God : 
such  are  —  The  public  worship  of  God;  the  ministry  of 
the  word,  eithAr  read  or  expounded ;  the  supper  of  tho 


METHODISTS.  91 

Lord ;  family  and  private  prayer ;    searching  the  Scrip- 
tures ;  and  fasting  and  abstinence. 

"  These  are  the  general  rules  of  our  societies,  all  which 
we  are  taught  of  God  to  observe,  even  in  his  written  word : 
the  only  true  rule,  and  the  sufficient  rule,  both  of  our  faith 
and  practice ;  and  all  these  we  know  his  Spirit  writes  on 
every  truly  awakened  heart.  If  there  be  any  among  us 
who  observe  them  not,  who  habitually  break  any  of  them, 
let  it  be  made  known  unto  them  who  watch  over  that  soul, 
as  they  who  must  give  an  account.  We  will  admonish 
him  of  the  error  of  his  ways ;  we  will  bear  with  him  for  a 
season ;  but  then,  if  he  repent  not,  he  hath  no  more  place 
among  us :  we  have  delivered  our  own  souls. 

"May  1,  1743.  JOHN  WESLEY. 

CHARLES  WESLEY." 

In  Mr.  Wesley's  connection,  they  have  circuits  and 
conferences,  which  we  find  were  thus  formed : — When  the 
preachers  at  first  went  out  to  exhort  and  preach,  it  was  by 
Mr.  Wesley's  permission  and  direction ;  some  from  one 
part  of  the  kingdom,  and  some  from  another ;  and,  though 
frequently  strangers  to  each  other,  and  those  to  whom 
they  were  sent,  yet  on  his  credit  and  sanction  alone  they 
were  received  and  provided  for  as  friends  by  the  societies 
wherever  they  came.  But  having  little  or  no  communica- 
tion or  intercourse  with  one  another,  nor  any  subordination 
among  themselves,  they  must  have  been  under  the  neces- 
sity of  recurring  to  Mr.  Wesley  for  directions  how  and 
where  they  were  to  labor.  To  remedy  this  inconvenience, 
he  conceived  the  design  of  calling  them  together  to  an 
annual  conference ;  by  this  means  he  brought  them  into 
closer  union  with  each  other,  and  made  them  sensible  of 
the  utility  of  acting  in  concert  and  harmony.  He  soon 
found  it  necessary,  also,  to  bring  their  itinerancy  under 


92  METHODISTS. 

certain  regulations,  and  reduce  it  to  some  fixed  order,  both 
to  prevent  confusion,  and  for  his  own  ease ;  he  therefore 
took  fifteen  or  twenty  societies,  more  or  less,  which  lay 
round  some  principal  society  in  those  parts,  and  which 
were  so  situated  that  the  greatest  distance  from  one  to 
another  was  not  much  more  than  twenty  miles,  and  united 
them  into  what  was  called  a  circuit.  At  the  yearly  con-» 
ference,  he  appointed  two,  three,  or  four  preachers  to  one 
of  these  circuits,  according  to  its  extent,  which  at  first  was 
very  often  considerable,  sometimes  taking  in  a  part  of 
three  or  four  counties.  Here,  and  here  only,  were  they  to 
labor  for  one  year,  that  is,  until  the  next  conference.  One 
of  the  preachers  on  every  circuit  was  called  the  assistant, 
because  he  assisted  Mr.  Wesley  in  superintending  the 
societies  and  other  preachers ;  he  took  charge  of  the  socie- 
ties within  the  limits  assigned  him ;  he  enforced  the  rules 
everywhere,  and  directed  the  labors  of  the  preachers  asso- 
ciated with  him.  Having  received  a  list  of  the  societies 
forming  his  circuit,  he  took  his  own  station  in  it,  gave  to 
the  other  preachers  a  plan  of  it,  and  pointed  out  the  day 
when  each  should  be  at  the  place  fixed  for  him,  to  begin  a 
progressive  motion  round  it,  in  such  order  as  the  plan 
directed.  They  now  followed  one  another  through  all  the 
societies  belonging  to  that  circuit,  at  stated  distances  of 
time,  all  being  governed  by  the  same  rules,  and  under- 
going the  same  labor.  By  this  plan  every  preacher's  daily 
work  was  appointed  beforehand ;  each  knew,  every  day, 
where  the  others  were,  and  each  society  when  to  expect 
the  preacher,  and  how  long  he  would  stay  with  them. — It 
may  be  observed,  however,  that  Mr.  Wesley's  design  in 
calling  the  preachers  together  annually,  was  not  merely 
for  the  regulation  of  the  circuits,  but  also  for  the  review 
of  their  doctrines  and  discipline,  and  for  the  examination 
of  their  moral  conduct ;  that  those  who  were  to  administer 


METUODISTS.  93 

with  him  in  holy  things  might  be  thoroughly  furnished 
for  every  good  work. 

The  first  conference  was  held  in  June,  1744,  at  which 
Mr.  Wesley  met  his  brother,  two  or  three  other  clergymen, 
and  a  few  of  the  preachers  whom  he  had  appointed  to 
come  from  various  parts  to  confer  with  them  on  the  affairs 
of  the  societies. 

"Monday,  June  25,"  observes  Mr.  Wesley,  "and  the 
five  following  days,  we  spent  in  conference  with  oui 
preachers,  seriously  considering  by  what  means  we  might 
the  most  effectually  save  our  own  souls,  and  them  that 
heard  us ;  and  the  result  of  our  consultations  we  set  down 
to  be  the  rule  of  our  future  practice." 

Since  that  time  a  conference  has  been  held  annually, 
Mr.  Wesley  himself  having  presided  at  forty-seven.  The 
subjects  of  their  deliberations  were  proposed  in  the  form 
of  questions,  which  were  amply  discussed,  and  the  ques- 
tions with  the  answers,  agreed  upon,  were  afterwards 
printed  under  the  title  of  '"  Minutes  of  several  Conversa- 
tions between  the  Rev.  Mr.  Wesley  and  others,"  commonly 
called  Minutes  of  Conference. 

As^to  their  preachers,  the  following  extract  from  the 
above-mentioned  Minutes  of  Conference  will  show  us  in 
what  manner  they  are  chosen  and  designated  :  Q.  "  How 
shall  we  try  those  who  think  they  are  moved  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  preach  ?"  A.  "  Inquire,  1.  Do  they  know  God 
as  a  pardoning  God  ?  Have  they  the  love  of  God  abiding 
in  them?  Do  they  desire  and  seek  nothing  but  God? 
And  are  they  holy  in  all  manner  of  conversation? 
2.  Have  they  gifts  as  well  as  grace  for  the  work  ?  Have 
they,  in  some  tolerable  degree,  a  clear,  sound  understand 
ing  ?  Have  they  a  right  judgment  in  the  things  of  God  ? 
Have  they  a  just  conception  of  salvation  by  faith?  And 
has  God  given  them  any  degree  of  utterance?  Do  thoy 


4  METHODISTS. 

speak  jusstly,  readily,  clearly  ? — 3.  Have  they  fruit  f  Are 
any  truly  convinced  of  sin  and  converted  to  God  by  their 
preaching  ? 

"As  long  as  these  three  marks  concur  in  any  one,  we 
believe  he  is  called  of  God  to  preach.  These  we  receive 
as  sufficient  proof  that  he  is  moved  thereto  by  the  Holy 
G-host. 

Q.  "  What  method  may  we  use  in  receiving  a  new 
helper?"  A.  "A  proper  time  for  doing  this  is  at  a  con- 
ference, after  solemn  fasting  and  prayer ;  every  person 
proposed  is  then  to  be  present,  and  each  of  them  may  be 
asked, — 

"  Have  you  faith  in  Christ  ?  Are  you  going  on  to  per- 
fection ?  Do  you  expect  to  be  perfected  in  love  in  this 
life  ?  Are  you  groaning  after  it  ?  Are  you  resolved  to 
devote  yourself  wholly  to  God  and  to  his  work  ?  Have 
you  considered  the  rules  of  a  helper  f  Will  you  keep 
them  for  conscience'  sake?  Are  you  determined  to  em- 
ploy all  your  time  in  the  work  of  God  ?  Will  you  preach 
every  morning  and  evening?  Will  you  diligently  instruct 
the  children  in  every  place  ?  Will  you  visit  from  house  to 
house  ?  Will  you  recommend  fasting  both  by  precept  and 
example  ? 

"  We  then  may  receive  him  as  a  probationer,  by  giving 
him  the  Minutes  of  the  Conference,  inscribed  thus  :  —  'To 
A.  B.  You  think  it  your  duty  to  call  sinners  to  repent- 
ance. Make  full  proof  hereof,  and  we  shall  rejoice  to 
receive  you  as  a  fellow-laborer.'  Let  him  then  read  and 
carefully  weigh  what  is  contained  therein,  that  if  he  haa 
any  doubt  it  may  be  removed." 

"  To  the  above  it  may  be  useful  to  add,"  says  Mr.  Ben- 
Bon,  "  a  few  remarks  on  the  method  pursued  in  the  choice 
of  the  itinerant  preachers,  as  many  have  formed  the  must 
erroneous  ideas  on  the  subject,  imagining  they  are  era- 


METHODISTS.  9i> 

ployed  with  hardly  any  prior  preparation.  1.  They  are 
received  as  private  members  of  the  society  on  trial.  2. 
After  a  quarter  of  a  year,  if  they  are  found  deserving, 
they  are  admitted  as  proper  members.  3.  When  their 
grace  and  abilities  are  sufficiently  manifest  they  are  ap- 
pointed leaders  of  classes.  4.  If  they  then  discover 
talents  for  more  important  services,  they  are  employed  to 
exhort  occasionally  in  the  smaller  congregation,  when  the 
preachers  cannot  attend.  5.  If  approved  in  this  line  of 
duty,  they  are  allowed  to  preach.  6.  Out  of  these  men 
•who  are  called  local  preachers,  are  selected  the  itinerant 
preachers,  who  are  first  proposed  at  a  quarterly  meeting 
of  the  stewards  and  local  preachers  of  the  circuit ;  then  at 
a  meeting  of  the  travelling  preachers  of  the  district ;  and 
lastly,  in  the  conference ;  and,  if  accepted,  are  nominated 
for  a  circuit.  7.  Their  characters  and  conduct  are  ex- 
amined annually  in  the  conference ;  and,  if  they  continue 
faithful  for  four  years  of  trial,  they  are  received  into  full 
connection.  At  these  conferences,  also,  strict  inquiry  is 
made  into  the  conduct  and  success  of  every  preacher,  and 
those  who  are  found  deficient  in  abilities  are  no  longer 
employed  as  itinerants ;  while  those  whose  conduct  has -not 
been  agreeable  to  the  Gospel,  are  expelled,  and  thereby 
deprived  of  all  the  privileges  even  of  private  members  of 
the  society." 

Since  Mr.  Wesley's  death,  his  people  have  been  divided; 
but  this  division,  it  seems,  respects  discipline  more  than 
sentiment.  Mr.  Wesley  professed  a  strong  attachment  to 
the  established  church  of  England,  and  exhorted  the 
f  ocieties  under  his  care  to  attend  her  service,  and  receive 
the  Lord's  supper  from  the  regular  clergy.  But  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  time  he  thought  proper  to  ordain  some 
bishops  and  priests  for  America  and  Scotland ;  but  as  one 
or  two  of  the  bishops  have  never  been  out  of  Engbmd  since 


96  METHODISTS. 

their  appointment  to  the  office,  it  is  prolable  that  he 
intended  a  regular  ordination  should  take  place  when  the 
state  of  the  connection  might  render  it  necessary.  During 
his  life,  some  of  the  societies  petitioned  to  have  preaching 
in  their  own  chapels  in  church  hours,  and  the  Lord's 
Supper  administered  by  the  travelling  preachers.  This 
request  he  generally  refused,  and  where  it  could  be  con- 
veniently done,  sent  some  of  the  clergymen  who  officiated 
at  the  New  Chapel  in  London,  to  perform  these  solemn 
services.  At  the  first  conference  after  his  death,  which 
was  held  at  Manchester,  the  preachers  published  a  decla- 
ration, in  which  they  said  that  they  would  "take  up  the 
Plan  as  Mr.  Wesley  had  left  it."  This  was  by  no  means 
satisfactory  to  many  of  the  preachers  and  people,  who 
thought  that  religious  liberty  ought  to  be  extended  to  all 
the  societies  which  desired  it.  In  order  to  favor  this  cause, 
so  agreeable  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity  and  the  rights  of 
Englishmen,  several  respectable  preachers  came  forward ; 
and  by  the  writings  which  they  circulated  through  the 
connection,  paved  the  way  for  a  plan  of  pacification,  by 
which  it  was  stipulated,  that  in  every  society  where  a 
three-fold  majority  of  class-leaders,  stewards,  and  trustees 
desired  it,  the  people  should  have  preaching  in  church 
hours,  and  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per administered  to  them.  The  spirit  of  inquiry  being 
roused  did  not  stop  here ;  for  it  appeared  agreeable  both 
to  reason  and  the  customs  of  the  primitive  church,  that 
the  people  should  have  a  voice  in  the  temporal  concerns 
of  the  societies,  vote  in  the  election  of  church-officers,  and 
give  their  suffrages  in  spiritual  concerns.  This  subject 
produced  a  variety  of  arguments  on  both  sides  of  the 
question :  many  of  the  preachers  and  people  thought  that 
an  annual  delegation  of  the  general  stewards  of  the  cir- 
cuits, to  ait  either  in  the  conference  or  the  district  meet- 


M  E  I  II  0  D  I  S  1  S .  97 

mg3,  in  order  to  assist  in  the  disbursement  of  the  yearly 
collection,  the  Kingswood  School  collection,  and  the 
preachers'  fund,  and  in  making  new  or  revising  cid  laws, 
would  be  a  bond  of  union  between  the  conference  and 
connection  at  large,  and  do  away  the  rery  idea  of  arbitrary 
power  among  the  travelling  preachers.  In  order  to  facili- 
tate this  good  work,  many  societies  in  various  parts  of  the 
kingdom  sent  delegates  to  the  conference  held  at  Leeds  in 
1797 ;  they  were  instructed  to  request  that  the  people 
might  have  a  voice  in  ike  formation  of  their  own  laws,  the 
choice  of  their  own  officers,  and  the  distribution  of  their 
oivn  property.  The  preachers  proceeded  to  discuss  two 
motions :  Shall  delegates  from  the  societies  be  admitted 
into  the  conference  ?  Shall  circuit  stewards  be  admitted 
into  the  district  meetings  ?  Both  motions  were  negatived, 
and  consequently  all  hopes  of  accommodation  between  the 
parties  were  given  up.  Several  friends  of  religious  liberty 
proposed  a  plan  for  a  new  itinerancy.  In  order  that  it 
might  be  carried  into  immediate  effect,  they  foimed  them- 
selves into  a  regular  meeting  in  Ebenezer  Chapel,  Mr. 
William  Thorn  being  chosen  president,  and  Mr.  Alexander 
Kilharn,  secretary.  The  meeting  proceeded  to  arrange 
the  plan  for  supplying  the  circuits  of  the  new  connection 
with  preachers,  and  desired  the  president  and  secretary  to 
draw  up  the  rules  of  the  church  government,  in  order  that 
they  might  be  circulated  through  the  societies  for  their 
approbation.  Accordingly,  a  form  of  church  government, 
suited  to  an  itinerant  ministry,  was  printed  by  these  two 
brethren,  under  the  title  of  "  Outlines  of  a  Constitution 
proposed  for  the  Examination,  Amendment,  and  Accept- 
ance of  the  Members  of  the  Methodist  New  Itinerancy." 
The  plan  was  examined  by  select  committees  in  the 
different  circuits  of  the  connection,  and,  with  a  few  altera- 
tions, was  accepted  by  the  conference  of  preachers  and 


93  METHODISTS. 

delegates.  The  preachers  and  people  nre  incorporated  in 
all  meetings  for  business,  not  by  temporary  concession,  but 
by  the  essential  principles  of  their  constitution ;  for  tha 
private  members  choose  the  class-leaders ;  the  leaders 
meeting  nominates  the  stewards ;  and  the  society  confinr.s 
or  rejects  the  nomination.  The  quarterly  meetings  are 
composed  of  the  general  stewards  and  representatives 
chosen  by  the  different  societies  of  the  circuits,  and  the 
fourth  quarterly  meeting  of  the  year  appoints  the  preacher 
and  delegate  of  every  circuit  that  shall  attend  the  general 
conference.  For  a  further  account  of  their  principles  and 
discipline,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  a  pamphlet,  entitled 
General  Rules  of  the  United  Societies  of  Methodist*  in 
the  New  Connection. 

The  Calvinisdc  Methodists  are  not  incorporated  into  a 
body  as  the.  Armenians  are,  but  are  chiefly  under  the 
direction  or  influence  of  their  ministers  or  patrons. 

It  is  necessary  to  observe  here  that  there  are  many  con- 
gregations in  London,  and  elsewhere,  who,  although  they 
are  called  Methodists,  yet  are  neither  in  Mr.  Wesley's, 
Mr.  Whitfield's,  nor  the  new  connection.  Some  of  these 
are  supplied  by  a  variety  of  ministers  ;  and  others,  border- 
ing more  upon  the  congregational  plan,  have  a  resident 
minister.  The  clergy  of  the  church  of  England  who 
strenuously  preach  up  her  doctrines  and  articles,  are  called 
Methodists.  A  distinct  connection  upon  Mr.  Whitfield's 
plan  was  formed  and  patronized  by  the  late  Lady  Hun- 
tingdon, and  which  still  subsists.  The  term  Methodist, 
also,  is  applied  by  way  of  reproach  to  almost  every  one 
who  manifests  more  than  common  concern  for  the  interests 
of  religion,  and  the  spiritual  good  of  mankind. 

Methodism  in  this  country,  as  in  Great  Britain,  was  at 
first  an  arm  of  the  Church  of  England,  without  an  or- 
dained ministry,  and  without  ordinances.  It  aimed  chiefly 


METHODISTS. 

at  the  revival  of  true  religion,  and  the  conversion  of  sin- 
ners to  God.  Commencing  with  a  congregation  of  five 
persons  in  the  house  of  an  Irish  emigrant  named  Philip 
Embury,  a  lay  or  local  preacher  in  New  York,  in  1766, 
the  missionary  spirit  of  the  movement  soon  extended  to 
other  parts  of  the  country.  Societies  \vere  formed  and  the 
cause  greatly  advanced  by  Captain  Webb,  a  British  officer, 
who  zealously  preached  the  doctrines  held  by  Wesley,  and 
met  with  wonderful  success.  The  classes  grew  and  mul- 
tiplied on  every  hand  until  1773,  when,  at  a  Conference 
held  that  year  in  Philadelphia,  there  were  reported  ten 
itinerant  preachers  and  over  one  thousand  communicants. 
The  political  revolution  of  1776  occasioned  some  de- 
rangement in  the  work,  and  resulted  in  an  entire  change 
in  the  relations  of  American  Methodism.  The  breaking 
up  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  the  return  to  that 
country  of  many  English  clergymen,  left  the  societies 
destitute  of  the  needed  services  of  an  ordained  ministry. 
Mr.  Wesley  was  importuned  on  the  subject,  and  about 
the  close  of  the  war  inaugurated  measures  for  the  in- 
dependency of  the  societies  in  the  United  States.  This 
led  to  the  formal  organization  and  establishment  of 

THE  METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  ^CHUKCH. 

In  its  Book  of  Discipline  the  origin  and  structure  of 
the  Church  are  thus  set  forth :  "  The  preachers  and  mem- 
bers of  our  society  in  general,  being  convinced  that  there 
was  a  great  deficiency  of  vital  religion  in  the  Church  oi 
England  in  America,  and  being  in  many  places  destitute 
of  the  Christian  Sacraments,  as  several  of  the  clergy  had 
forsaken  their  churches,  requested  the  late  Rev.  John 
Wesley  to  take  such  measures,  in  his  wisdom  and  pru- 
dence, as  would  aiford  them  suitable  relief  in  their  dis- 
tress. 


J.OO  METHODISTS. 

"In  consequence  of  this,  our  venerable  friend,  who, 
under  God,  has  been  the  father  of  the  great  revival  of  re- 
ligion now  extending  over  the  earth  by  the  means  of  the 
Methodists,  determined  to  ordain  ministers  for  America, 
and  for  this  purpose,  in  the  year  1784,  sent  over  three 
regularly  ordained  clergy;  but  preferring  the  Episcopal 
mode  of  Church  government  to  any  other,  he  solemnly 
set  apart,  by  the  imposition  of  his  hands  and  prayer,  one 
of  them,  namely,  Thomas  Coke,  doctor  of  civil  law,  late 
of  Jesus  College,  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  a  pres- 
byter of  the  Church  of  England,  for  the  episcopal  office; 
and  having  delivered  to  him  letters  of  episcopal  orders, 
commissioned  and  directed  him  to  set  apart  Francis  As- 
bury,  then  general  assistant  of  the  Methodist  society  in 
America,  for  the  same  episcopal  office,  he,  the  said  Fran- 
cis Asbury,  being  first  ordained  deacon  and  elder.  In  con- 
sequence of  which,  the  said  Francis  Asbury  was  solemnly 
set  apart  for  the  said  episcopal  office  by  prayer  and  the 
imposition  of  the  hands  of  the  said  Thomas  Coke,  other 
regularly  ordained  ministers  assisting  in  the  sacred  cere- 
mony. At  which  time  the  General  Conference  held  at 
Baltimore  did  unanimously  receive  the  said  Thomas  Coke 
tnd  Francis  Asbury  as  their  bishops,  being  fully  satisfied 
df  the  validity  of  their  episcopal  ordination." 

The  "General  Conference"  above  referred  to,  was  con- 
vened December  25,  1784.  The  polity  which  has  since 
mainly  governed  the  Church  was  approved.  But  two 
orders  in  the  ministry  were  recognized,  that  of  deacon 
and  elder  or  presbyter,  the  bishop  being  different  from 
the  latter  only  in  office.  Mr.  Wesley  was  led  to  this 
opinion,  as  he  declared,  by  reading  Lord  King's  account 
of  the  Primitive  Christian  Church.  The  two  American 
bishops  thus  providentially  constituted  immediately  pre- 
pared and  presented  a  patriotic  address  to  General  Wash- 


M  KTJIOUIPTS.  101 

ington,  in  the  name  of  the  people  they  represented,  receiv- 
ing from  him  as  the  first  President  of  the  United  States 
a  cordial  recognition  and  the  assurance  of  personal  regard. 

In  less  than  one  hundred  years  from  the  date  of  its 
organization,  Methodism  has  covered  the  whole  continent, 
showing  by  the  latest  census  returns,  a  membership  in  all 
its  branches  of  2,723,252,  and  a  ministry,  travelling  and 
local,  of  over  37,000  men. 

The  officers  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  are 
class  leaders,  stewards,  trustees,  exhorters,  local  preachers, 
pastors  in  charge,  presiding  elders  of  districts,  and  general 
superintendents  or  bishops,  the  duties  of  each  being  de- 
fined in  the  Book  of  Discipline. 

The  itinerant  ministers,  although  springing  directly  from 
the  people,  held  the  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  de- 
partments in  their  own  hands  until  very  recently.  The 
right  of  lay  representation,  long  a  subject  of  controvers) 
and  the  occasion  of  schism,  is  now  conceded,  and  incor- 
porated in  the  government  of  the  Church.  A  General 
Conference,  which  meets  quadrennially,  possesses  full  pow- 
ers to  revise  any  part  of  the  discipline,  except  certain  re- 
strictive rules  relating  to  doctrine  and  the  maintenance  of 
the  system  of  itinerancy,  the  concurrence  of  three-fourths 
of  all  the  Annual  Conferences  being  necessary  to  the  al- 
teration of  any  important  measure  needing  revision. 

The  bishops  are  required  to  travel  extensively,  taking 
the  oversight  of  the  entire  work.  They  are  elected  to 
office  by  the  General  Conference,  to  which  body  they  are 
amenable.  They  preside  at  all  the  Annual  Conferences, 
of  which  there  are  over  seventy,  ordain  the  deacons  and 
elders  by  the  imposition  of  hands,  and  appoint  the  pastors 
to  their  several  circuits  and  stations. 

An  immense  book-concern  in  New  York  and  Cincin- 
nati, with  branches  in  all  the  leading  cities,  from  Boston 
fl* 


102  METHODISTS. 

to  the  Pacific  coast,  supplies  the  literary  wants  of  the  de- 
nomination. It  is  under  the  control  of  the  General  Con- 
ference, and  publishes  about  2000  bound  volumes  and 
over  1000  tracts  in  the  English,  German,  Welsh,  Swe- 
dish, Danish,  and  French  languages.  The  periodical  litera- 
ture of  the  Church  consists  of  an  able  Quarterly  Review, 
several  monthly  magazines,  ten  official,  and  as  many  semi- 
official and  independent  weekly  papers,  with  a  great  va- 
riety of  publications  for  Sunday-schools,  all  of  which  have 
an  extensive  circulation. 

The  Missionary  department  embraces  a  working  force 
of  six  hundred,  and  a  membership  in  foreign  lands  of 
between  forty  and  fifty  thousand  souls. 

Uuder  the  auspices  of  the  Church  Extension  Society, 
new  edifices  for  religious  worship  are  being  constantly 
and  rapidly  built,  the  total  number  of  churches  owned 
by  the  denomination  being  1-'5,500,  with  capacity  to  ac- 
commodate five  millions  of  people,  and  estimated,  with 
parsonage  property,  to  be  worth  $30,000,000. 

The  literary  institutions  of  this  Church  include  6  theo- 
logical seminaries;  27  universities  and  colleges;  and  69 
academies  and  seminaries.  The  number  of  teachers,  in- 
cluding presidents  and  professors,  is  given  as  about  750,  stu- 
dents, 20,000,  and  aggregate  value  of  property,  $8,000,000. 

The  latest  statistics  (1870)  show  8  bishops,  9193  travel- 
ling and  11,404  local  preachers,  and  1,367,134  communi- 
cants, 16,912  Sunday-schools,  189,412  officers  and  teach- 
ers,.and  1,221,393  scholars.  The  benevolent  contributions 
of  the  Church  are  reported  at  au  average  of  $1,000,000 
per  year. 

THE  METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  SOUTH, 

was  formed  in  1844.  At  the  General  Conference  of  that 
year,  differences  of  opinion  on  the  subject  of  slavery  be- 


METHODISTS.  103 

came  so  antagonistic  that  a  separation  was  effected,  and 
1155  ministers,  with  639,164  members  belonging  in  the 
Southern  States,  became  a  distinct  ecclesiastical  body.  Its 
enterprise  and  ratio  of  increase  corresponded  with  that  of 
the  parent  Church,  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  ,var, 
which  brought  serious  disaster  upon  all  Southern  institu- 
tions. Since  the  return  of  peace  the  Southern  Methodists 
have  displayed  uncommon  energy  in  "building  up  the 
waste  places,"  reviving  their  literature,  and  enlarging  the 
borders  of  their  territory.  They  now  number  some  35 
Annual  Conferences,  9  bishops,  8000  travelling  and  local 
preachers,  and  a  membership  of  over  600,000. 

A  book-publishing  house  at  Nashville,  Tennessee,  and 
official  papers  in  various  sections,  with  an  adequate  supply 
of  periodical  literature,  schools,  colleges,  and  all  the  ma- 
chinery of  an  active  organization,  give  vigor  and  vitality 
to  this  branch  of  Methodism. 

OTHEK  BKANCHES. 

From  time  to  time  there  have  been  divisions  and  seces- 
sions among  the  "people  called  Methodists,"  mostly  on 
account  of  Church  government,  the  leading  doctrines  re- 
maining intact,  and  held  fast  by  all  in  common. 

In  1792  a  secession  took  place  in  Virginia  headed  by  a 
presiding  elder  named  James  O'Kelly,  who  objected  to  the 
absolute  power  of  the  bishops  in  appointing  the  preachers, 
and  contended  for  an  appeal  to  the  Conference.  This 
Mr.  O'Kelly  was  a  man  of  very  considerable  popu- 
larity, and  had  great  influence  over  the  minds  of  those 
with  whom  he  associated.  The  spirit  of  dissension  was 
fomented  by  the  publication  of  appeals  to  the  preachers 
and  people,  and  a  number  in  southern  Virginia  and 
Carolina  joined  themselves  to  his  standard.  They 


104  METHODISTS. 

took  the  name  of  "RKPUBLICAN  METHODISTS,"  though 
better  known  as  O'Kelleyites.  Their  system  of  church 
polity  was  liberal,  and  for  a  time  succeeded  well ;  but  in  t 
few  years  they  began  to  decline,  and  finally  amalgamated 
with  a  branch  of  Baptists  known  as  Christians. 

Another  small  secession  took  place  in  Vermont,  A.  D. 
1804,  which  resulted  in  the  formation  of 

THE  REFORMED  METHODIST  CHURCH. 

The  government  established  by  this  branch  is  essentially 
Congregational,  all  power  being  in  the  churches.  To  the 
annual  and  general  conferences  are  delegated  power  to 
transact  business  of  a  general  character,  for  which  they 
are  held  strictly  accountable  to  the  churches.  The 
churches  select  their  own  ministers,  and  stipulate  with 
them  in  respect  to  time  and  salary.  In  the  beginning  the 
churches  ordained  their  own  ministers,  but  subsequently 
lay  ordinati  m  was  discontinued.  In  the  fall  of  1841  an 
association  was  formed  between  the  Reformed  Methodists, 
Society  Methodists,  and  several  churches  of  Wesleyan 
Methodists,  for  mutual  aid.  And  after  the  organization 
of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  in  1843,  preliminary 
steps  were  taken  with  a  view  to  the  union  of  the  two 
bodies.  At  that  time  they  had  5  conferences,  about  50 
ordained  preachers,  and  3000  members.  At  present, 
1870,  they  have  20,000  members. 

In  1820,  a  third  secession  from  the  old  connection  in 
New  York  took  the  name  of 

THE  METHODIST  SOCIETY. 

They  adopted  the  representative  form  of  government. 
It  required  a  majority  of  laymen  in  their  conferences  to 
form  any  rules  for  the  government  of  the  churches.  The 
pre.ichers  remain  in  the  same  charge  as  long  as  they  can 


METHODISTS.  106 

agree  with  the  churches.  Prosperity  attended  them  foi  \ 
few  years;  but  most  of  their  ministers  and  members  united 
with  the  Metholist  Protestant  Church.  The  most  promi- 
nent minister  of  the  society  is  William  M.  Stilwell,  pastor 
of  the  church  in  New  York.  No  statistics  have  been  fur- 
nished, from  which  to  ascertain  the  number  of  their  mem- 
bership. They  probably  do  not  exceed  5000. 

In  1821,  an  animated  discussion  of  the  principles  of 
church  polity  was  introduced  into  a  periodical  entitled  the 
Wesleyan  Repository,  edited  and  published  by  William  S. 
Stockton,  a  layman  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
Trenton,  N.  J.  It  attracted  general  attention,  and  conti- 
nued to  spread  as  a  little  leaven  through  the  whole  lump. 
Memorials  praying  for  lay  representation  were  addressed 
to  the  General  Conference  of  1824.  Union  societies  were 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  concentrating  strength.  These 
measures  alarmed  the  powers  that  be,  and  the  work  of  ex- 
pulsion commenced  ;  secession  followed.  A  convention  of 
reformers  was  held.  The  General  Conference  of  1828 
denied  the  right  of  lay  representation,  and  refused  redress. 
All  hope  of  reform  fled.  The  expelled  and  their  friends 
organized  churches,  known  as  ASSOCIATED  METHODISTS  ; 
and  in  1880  a  General  Convention  was  held  in  Baltimore, 
which  formed  a  Constitution  and  Discipline,  adopting  as 
the  name  of  the  association, 

THE  METHODIST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH. 

Thirteen  annual  conferences  were  represented  in  th« 
convention.  Episcopacy  was  rejected  as  a  spurious  order, 
and  ministerial  parity  asserted.  The  elementary  principles 
of  the  government  acknowledge  the  individuality  of  the 
local  assemblies  as  churches  of  Christ  —  the  Lord  Jesus  as 
the  only  Head  of  the  Church  —  the  Word  of  God  the  only 
rule  of  faith  and  practice  —  and  private  judgment  as  the 


METHODISTS. 

right  of  man.     They  secure  the  freedom  of  speech  and 
pres8  —  protect  church  membership,  and  define  the  origin 

of  power. 

The  constitution  recognises  the  mutual  rights  of  minis- 
ter* and  laymen,  and  grants  an  equal  representation  to 
both.  The  doctrines  taught  —  the  means  of  grace  —  mode 
of  worship  and  usages  common  to  Methodists,  are  retained. 
The  Church  has  been  steadily  progressing  ever  since;  and, 
ttt  present,  is  extended  over  the  whole  of  the  United  States 
There  are  30  annual  conferences,  about  1500  ministers, 
and  a,bout  230,000  members. 

In  1843,  a  convention  of  seceders  from  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  and  other  Methodist  societies  opposed 
to  slavery,  was  held  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  and  founded 

THE  WESLEYAN  METHODIST  CHURCH. 
They  adopted  the  same  principles  of  church  government 
held  by  the  Methodist  Protestants,  but  abjure  all  connec- 
tion with  slavery  and  slaveholders.  The  distinguishing 
feaf.ure  of  the  association  is  its  anti-slavery  character. 
Tbey  have  been  strengthened  by  secessions  from  all  the 
other  Methodist  churches,  and  now  number  10  annual  con- 
ferences, 1000  ministers  (of  whom  600  are  travelling  preach- 
ers), and  5  >,OUO  members,  confined  to  the  free  States. 

THE  EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION, 

or  Albrights,  are  in  fact  German  Methodists,  as  they  are 
familiarly  called.  The  first  society  was  organized  in  1800, 
under  their  leader,  Jacob  Albright.  In  1803  he  was  elected 
presiding  elder,  arid  ordained  by  the  other  preachers,  and 
ecclesiastical  regulations  adopted.  Their  bishops,  so  called, 
are  elected  quadrennially.  They  have  hitherto  confined 
their  labors  to  the  German  population  chiefly.  They  have 
1 6  annual  conferences,  about  500  ministers,  and  72,979 
uj  embers. 


METHODISTS.  107 

THE  PRIMITIVE  METHODISTS 

have  a  number  of  societies  in  this  country,  planted  by 
emigrants  from  England.  They  have  (1870)  2000  mem- 
beis,  *uid  20  preachers. 

CONGREGATIONAL,  OR  INDEPENDENT  METHODISTS. 

Churches  having  no  connection  with  any  ecclesiastical 
body  exist  in  many  pl.-ices.  A  very  respectable  association 
of  such  might  be  formed,  but  at  present  they  are  not  gene- 
rally known  beyond  the  localities  in  which  they  are  found.  It 
is  believe4  there  are  several  thousand  members  of  this  class. 

13esides  the  above,  there  are  several  distinct  associations 
of  colored  Methodists.  In  1816,  a  number  of  colored  pei- 
sons  finding  their  connection  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  subjected  them  to  serious  inconveniences,  assembled 
iu  Philadelphia,  and  organized 

THE  AFRICAN  METHODIST  EPISCOPAJL  CHURCH. 

They  copied  after  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
I«ev.  Richard  Allen  being  their  first  bishop.  They  have 
uow  5  bishops,  4000  preachers,  travelling  and  local,  and  a 
membership  of  375,000  in  the  United  States  and  Canada, 

THE  AFRICAN  M.  EPISCOPAL  ZION  CHUECH 

was  organized  by  a  body  of  seceders  from  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  New  York,  October  25,  1820.  This 
church  is  not  strictly  episcopal.  Their  bishops  are  styled 
superintendents,  and  elected  quadrennially,  and  hold  the 
office  four  years.  They  have  1500  travelling  preachers, 
and  172,000  members. 

Another  small  body  called  UNION  METHODISTS,  and  se- 
veral congregational  churches  of  colored  persons,  amount- 
ing in  all  to  several  thousand  members,  exist ;  but  of  the>r 
peculiar  views  little  is  known. 


105  KIRK    OF    SCOTLAND. 


KIRK  OF  SCOTLAND.* 

THE  conversion  of  the  Scots  to  the  Christian  faith  began 
through  the  ministry  of  Paladius,  about  the  year  430,  and 
from  the  first  establishment  of  Christianity  in  that  country 
till  the  Reformation  in  the  reign  of  Mary,  mother  of  James  I. 
and  of  Mary  I.  of  England,  their  church  government  was 
episcopacy  ;  but  the  Presbyterian  discipline  was  not  finally 
established  in  Scotland,  until  the  reign  of  King  William 
and  Mary,  A.  D.  1689,  when  episcopacy  was  totally  abo- 
lished. The  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  was  then 
received  as  the  standard  of  the  national  creed ;  which  all 
ministers,  and  principals  and  professors  in  universities,  are 
obliged  to  subscribe  as  the  confession  of  their  faith,  before 
receiving  induction  into  office. 

The  Church  of  Scotland  is  remarkable  for  its  uncommon 
simplicity  of  worship  ;  it  possesses  no  liturgy,  no  altar,  no 
instrumental  music,  no  surplice,  no  fixed  canonical  vestment 
of  any  kind.  It  condemns  the  worship  paid  to  saints,  and 
ohserves  no  festival  days.  Its  ministers  enjoy  a  parity  of 
rank  and  of  authority;  it  enforces  that  all  ministers,  being 
ambassadors  of  Christ,  are  equal  in  commission ;  that  there 
is  no  order  in  the  church,  as  established  by  the  Saviour, 
superior  to  jresbyters;  and  that  bishop  and  presbyter, 
though  different  words,  are  of  the  same  import.  It  acknow- 
ledges no  earthly  head  :  its  judicatories  are  quite  distinct 
from,  and  independent  of,  any  civil  judicatory  ;  insomuch, 
indeed,  that  the  decisions  of  the  one  are  often  contrary  to 
those  of  the  other,  yet  both  remain  unaffected  and  unal- 

*  The   word  Kirk  is  of  Saxon  origin,  and   signifies   Church ;   or, 
according  to  others,  it  is  a  contraction  of  the  Greek  word 
the  House  of  God. 


KIRK    OF     SCOTLAND.  109 

tered.  When,  for  example,  a  clergyman  hns  been  pre- 
sented to  a  parish  by  a  patron,  and  induction  and  ordination 
Lave  followed  on  that  presentation,  if  afterwards  it  be  found 
that  the  patron,  who  had  given  the  presentation,  has  not 
that  ri;iht,  and  that  it  belongs  to  nnother,  the  clergyman 
may  be  ejected  as  to  all  the  temporalities  of  the  office;  but 
quoad  sacra,  he  may  continue  minister  of  the  parish,  and 
exercise  all  the  sacred  functions :  and  though  a  new  pre- 
sentee may  obtain  a  right  to  the  civil  endowments  of  the 
benefice,  he  can  perform  none  of  the  sacred  duties,  while 
the  other  chooses  to  avail  himself  of  his  privilege. 

There  are  four  ecclesiastical  judicatories, — namely,  the 
Kirk  Session,  the  Presbytery,  the  Synod,  and  the  General 
Assembly,  from  each  of  which  there  is  a  power  of  appeal 
to  the  other ;  but  the  decision  of  the  General  Assembly  is 
supreme. 

The  lowest  court  is  the  Kirk  Session,  which  is  composed 
of  the  minister  of  the  parish,  who  is  the  moderator  or  pre- 
sident of  it,  and  a  number  of  the  most  grave  and  respec- 
table laymen,  members  of  the  congregation.  Their  number 
varies  in  different  parishes,  five  or  six  being  about  the 
average  number  ;  and  their  services  are  entirely  gratuitous. 
They  are  something  like  churchwardens  in  England,  only 
they  have  a  spiritual  jurisdiction,  as  it  is  a  part  of  their 
duty  to  visit  the  sick,  &c.  The  Kirk  Session  takes  cogni- 
sance of  cases  of  scandal,  sucii  as  fornication,  Sabbath- 
breaking,  profane  swearing.  It  also  manages  the  funds 
of  the  poor,  a  duty  in  which  it  formerly  was  assisted  by 
deacons,  a  class  of  men  inferior  to  elders,  as  they  had  no 
spiritual  jurisdiction  ;  but  not  being  found  necessary,  they 
are  consequently  disused. 

The  Presbytery,  which  is  the  court  next  in  dignity,  is 
composed  of  the  ministers  of  a  certain  district,  with  an 
elder  irom  each  parish.  The  number  of  presbyteries  is 
ID 


110  KIRK    OF    SCOTLAND. 

seventy-eight.  Their  chief  duty  consists  in  the  manage- 
ment of  such  matters  as  concern  the  church  within  theii 
respective  bounds.  But  they  may  originate  any  matter, 
and  bring  it  under  the  view  of  the  Synod  or  General  As- 
sembly. They  have  also  the  superintendence  of  education 
within  their  bounds,  such  as  the  induction  of  teachers,  and 
the  examination  of  schools. 

The  Synod  is  the  next  intermediate  court.  There  are 
fifteen  synods,  each  consisting  of  the  clergymen  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  presbyteries,  with  elders,  as  in  presbyteries. 
Presbyteries  meet  generally  once  a  month ;  synods  twice 
a  year,  though  some  remote  synods,  such  as  that  of  Argyle, 
only  once. 

The  General  Assembly  is  the  last  and  supreme  court, 
and  meets  yearly  in  the  month  of  May,  in  Edinburgh,  arid 
continues  its  sittings  for  twelve  days.  The  king  presides 
by  his  representative,  who  is  always  a  nobleman,  and  is 
denominated  the  Lord  High  Commissioner.  The  General 
Assembly  is  a  representative  court,  consisting  of  200  mem- 
bers representing  presbyteries,  and  156  elders  representing 
burghs  or  presbyteries,  and  five  ministers  or  elders  repre- 
senting universities,  —  making  altogether  361  members. 
They  choose  a  moderator  or  president,  out  of  their  own 
number,  distinct  from  the  Royal  Commissioner,  the  duty 
of  the  latter  consisting  merely  in  convening  and  dissolving 
the  court,  and  in  forming  the  medium  of  communication 
between  it  and  the  throne.  The  moderator  is  now  always 
a  clergyman,  though  previously  to  1688,  laymen  sometimes 
held  that  office. 

The  duties  of  the  Scotch  clergy  are  numerous  and  labo- 
rious. They  officiate  regularly  in  the  public  worship  of 
God  ;  and  in  general,  they  must  go  through  this  duty  twice 
every  Sunday  (exclusively  of  other  occasional  appearances), 
dolivciing  every  Sunday  a  lecture  arid  a  Atritjn,  with 


KIRK     OF     SCOTLAND.  Ill 

prayers.  It  is  also  expected,  throughout  Scotland,  that  tl.n 
prayers  and  discourses  shall  he  of  the  minister's  own  com 
position  ;  and  the  prayers,  in  all  cases,  and  the  discourses, 
in  most  instances,  are  delivered  without  the  use  of  papers. 
They  are  expected  to  perform  the  alternate  duties  of  exam- 
ining their  people  from  the  Scriptures  and  catechisms  of 
the  church,  and  of  visiting  them  from  house  to  house,  with 
prayers  and  exhortations.  This  is  done  commonly  once  in 
the  year,  heing  omitted  only  in  those  cases  in  which  the 
ministers  deem  it  impracticable,  or  not  acceptable,  or  at 
least  not  necessary.  The  charge  of  the  poor  devolves,  in 
a  very  particular  manner,  on  the  clergy,  and  in  them  also 
is  vested  the  superintendence  of  all  schools  within  their 
bounds. 

Baptism  in  this  church  is  practised  by  none  but  ministers, 
who  do  it  by  sprinkling  ;  and  whether  performed  in  private 
or  in  public,  it  is  almost  always  preceded  by  a  sermon. 

The  Lord's  Supper  is  not  administered  so  frequently  in 
Scotland  as  in  some  other  places.  Some  time  before  this 
sacrament  is  dispensed,  it  is  announced  from  the  pulpit. 
The  week  before,  the  Kirk  Session  meets,  and  draws  up  a 
list  of  all  the  communicants  in  the  parish,  according  to  the 
minister's  examination-book,  and  the  testimony  of  the 
elders  and  deacons.  According  to  this  list,  tickets  are 
delivered  to  each  communicant,  if  desired,  and  the  ministers 
and  elders  also  give  tickets  to  strangers  who  bring  sufficient 
testimonials.  None  are  allowed  to  communicate  without 
such  tickets,  which  are  produced  at  the  table.  Those  who 
never  received  are  instructed  by  the  minister,  and  by 
themselves  in  the  nature  of  the  sacraments,  and  taught 
what  is  the  proper  preparation  thereunto.  The  Wednes- 
day or  Thursday  before,  there  is  a  solemn  fast,  and  on  the 
Saturday  there  are  two  preparatory  sermons.  On  Sunday 
morning,  after  singing  and  prayer  -"a  usual,  the  minister 


112  KIRK    OF    SCOTLAND. 

of  the  parish  preaches  a  suitable  sermon ;  and  when  the 
ordinary  worship  is  ended,  he  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ 
forbids  the  unworthy  to  approach,  and  invites  the  penitent 
to  come  and  receive  the  sacrament.  Then  he  goes  into 
the  body  of  the  church,  where  one  or  two  tables,  according 
to  its  width,  are  placed,  reaching  from  one  end  to  the 
other,  covered  with  a  white  linen  cloth,  and  seats  on  both 
sides  for  the  communicants.  The  minister  places  himself 
at  the  end  or  middle  of  the  table.  Af'ter  a  short  discourse, 
he  reads  the  institution,  and  blesses  the  elements;  then  he 
breaks  the  bread,  and  distributes  it  and  the  wine  to  those 
that  are  next  him,  who  transmit  them  to  their  neighbors ; 
the  elders  and  deacon  attending  to  serve,  and  see  that  the 
whole  is  performed  with  decency  and  order.  While  these 
communicate,  the  minister  discourses  o~>  the  nature  of  the 
sacrament ;  and  the  whole  is  concluded  with  singing  and 
prayer.  The  minister  then  returns  to  the  pulpit,  and 
preaches  a  sermon.  The  morning-service  ended,  the  con- 
gregation are  dismissed  for  an  hour ;  after  which  the  usual 
afternoon  worship  is  performed.  On  the  Monday  morning, 
there  is  public  worship,  with  two  sermons ;  and  these, 
properly  speaking,  close  the  communion-service.  No 
private  communions  are  allowed  in  Scotland. 

Marriage  is  solemnized  nearly  after  the  manner  of  the 
Church  of  England,  with  the  exception  of  the  ring,  which 
is  deemed  a  great  relic  of  "popery."  By  the  laws  of 
Scotland,  the  marriage-knot  may  be  tied  without  any 
ceremony  of  a  religious  nature :  a  simple  promise  in  the 
presence  of  witnesses,  or  a  known  previous  cohabitation, 
being  sufficient  to  bind  the  obligation.  The  most  ridicu- 
lous, often  immoral,  and  almost  always  injurious  practice, 
of  marrying  at  Gf-r etna- Green  was,  till  lately,  in  use ;  a 
person  said  to  have  been  a  blacksmith  performed  the  cere- 
mony at  Gretna  according  to  the  rites  of  *ke  church. 


KIAK    OF    SCOTLAND.  Hi 

The  Funeral  ceremony  is  performed  in  total  silence.  The 
coipse  is  carried  to  the  grave,  and  there  interred  without 
a  word  being  spoken  on  the  occasion. 

Dr.  Evans,  in  his  usual  liberal  strain,  gives  the  follow- 
ing account  of  the  Seceders :  — 

"  Dissenters  from  the  kirk,  or  church  of  Scotland,  call 
themselves  Seceders ;   for,  as  the    term  Dissenter  comes 
fruai  the  Latin  word  dissentio,  to  differ,  so  the  appellation 
Seoeder  is   derived  from  another  Latin  word,  secedo,  to 
separate  or  to  withdraw  from  any  body  of  men  with  which 
we   may  have   been   united.     The  secession   arose   from 
vaiious  circumstances,  which  were  conceived  to  be  grout 
detections  from  the  established  church  of  Scotland.     The 
Seceders   are   rigid    Calvinists,    rather    austere   in   their 
manners,  and  severe  in  their  discipline.     Through  a  dif- 
ference as  to  civil  matters,  they  are  broken  down  into 
Buri/hers  arid  Anti-burghers.     Of  these  two  classes  the 
latter  are  the  most  confined  in  their  sentiments,  and  asso- 
ciate therefore  the  least  with  any  other  body  of  Christians. 
The  Seceders  originated  under  two  brothers,  Ralph  and 
Ebeuezer  Erskine,  of  Stirling,  about  the  year  1730.     It 
is  worthy  of  observation,  that  the  Rev.  George  Whitfield, 
in  one  of  his  visits  to  Scotland,  was  solemnly  reprobated 
by  the  Seceders,  because  he  refused  to  confine  his  itinerant 
labors   wholly  to   them.     The   reason    assigned   for   this 
monopolization   was,   that   they   were   exclusively    God's 
people.     Mr.  Whitfield  smartly   replied,  that  they  had, 
therefore,  the  less  need  of  his  services ;  for  his  aim  was  to 
turn  sinners  from  the  error  and  wickedness  of  their  ways, 
by  preaching  among  them  glad  tidings  of  great  joy. 

"The   Burgess'  oath,  concerning  which   the   Seceders 

differed,  is  administered  in  several  of  the  royal  boroughs 

of  Scotland,  and  runs  thus :  *  I  protest  before  God  and 

your  lordships,  that  I  profess  and  allow  with  my  heart  the 

iu*  H 


114  KIRK    OF    «COTLiND. 

tme  religion  presently  professed  within  this  realm,  and 
authorized  by  the  laws  thereof;  I  shall  abide  thereat,  and 
defend  the  same  to  my  life's  end,  renouncing  the  Roman 
religion  called  papistry.'  The  Messrs.  Erskine  and  others 
maintained  there  was  no  inconsistency  in  Seceders  taking 
this  oath,  because  the  established  religion  was  still  the 
true  religion,  in  spite  of  the  faults  attaching  to  it,  and 
hence  were  called  Burghers.  Messrs.  Moncrieff  and  others 
thought  the  swearing  to  the  religion,  as  professed  and 
authorized,  was  approving  the  corruptions,  therefore  the 
oath  was  inconsistent  and  not  to  be  taken ;  hence  Anti- 
burghers.  The  Kirk  of  Scotland,  both  parties  say,  still 
perseveres  in  a  course  of  defection  from  her  professed 
principles,  and  therefore  the  secession  continues,  and  is 
increasing  to  the  present  day.  (See  an  Historical  Account 
of  the  Rise  and  Progess  of  the  Secession,  by  the  late  Rev. 
John  Brown,  of  Haddington.)  The  Seceders  are  strict 
Presbyterians,  having  their  respective  associate  synods, 
and  are  to  be  found  not  only  in  Scotland,  but  also  in  Ire- 
land and  in  the  United  States  of  America.  Both  classes 
have  had  among  them  ministers  of  considerable  learning 
and  piety. 

"  There  is  also  a  species  of  Dissenters  from  the  Church 
of  Scotland  called  Relief,  whose  only  difference  from  the 
Kirk  is,  the  choosing  of  their  own  pastors.  They  arose  in 
1752,  and  are  respectable  as  to  numbers  and  ability. 
(See  a  Compendious  View  of  the  Religious  System  main- 
tained by  the  Synod  of  Relief,  by  P.  Hutchinson ;  and 
also  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Relief  Church,  &c.,  by  J. 
Smith.)  The  Relief  are  Calvinists  as  well  as  Presbyterians, 
but  liter"al  in  their  views,  admitting  to  their  communion 
pious  Christians  of  every  denomination.  They  revere  the 
union  of  faith  and  charity." 

In  1835,  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  Church  of  Scot- 


KIRK    OF    SCOTLAND.  115 

land  to  place  itself  on  a  more  popular  basis,  by  giving  to 
the  heads  of  families,  communicants,  a  veto  upon  the  nomi- 
nation of  the  patron ;  but  the  ecclesiastical  action  by  which 
this  was  sought  to  be  effected  having  been  declared,  by  the 
Supreme  Court,  to  be  a  civil  act  beyond  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  church,  and  no  disposition  being  manifested  by  the 
Parliament  to  aid  in  removing  the  difficulty,  a  number  of 
its  most  distinguished  members,  in  1843,  withdrew  in  a 
body,  and  formed  the  "Free  Church  of  Scotland."  It  is 
probable  they  anticipated  that  a  step  so  decided  would 
move  the  legislature  to  action  on  their  behalf.  One  of 
their  most  dearly-cherished  and  prominent  principles  was 
the  obligation  of  the  state  to  provide  for  the  religious  in- 
struction of  the  people,  and  the  insufficiency  of  the  volun- 
tary principle  for  this  purpose ;  but  the  state's  declining 
to  act,  left  them  to  make  a  beautiful  exemplification  of  the 
mistake  of  their  own  theory.  They  seemed  to  have  proved, 
by  logic,  that  a  church  could  not  sustain  itself  on  the  vol- 
untary principle  ;  they  are  demonstrating,  by  experiment, 
that  it  can  do  it,  not  only,  but  also  that  it  can  do  it  with 
signal  advantage  to  its  spiritual  interests.  The  late  emi- 
nent Doctor  Chalmers,  Doctors  Candlish,  Cunningham, 
and  many  others  distinguished  for  their  learning  and  piety, 
took  part  in  securing  the  division.  Since  the  separation, 
the  Free  Church  has  erected  676  churches,  487  of  which 
are  free  from  debt.  They  number  now  about  600  minis 
ters,  and  have  raised  in  less  than  five  years  7,500,000  dol 
Jars  for  sustaining  their  interests. 


116  ENGLISH    PRESBYTERIANS. 


ENGLISH  PRESBYTERIANS. 

THE  appellation  Presbyterian  is  in  England  appropri- 
ated to  a  large  denomination  of  dissenters,  who  have  no 
attachment  to  the  Scotch  mode  of  church  government  any 
more  than  to  episcopacy  amongst  us,  and  therefore  to  this 
body  of  Christians  the  term  Presbyterian,  in  its  original 
sense,  is  improperly  applied.  This  misapplication  has  oc- 
casioned many  wrong  notions,  and  should  be  rectified. 
English  Presbyterians,  as  they  are  called,  adopt  nearly 
the  same  mode  of  church  government  with  the  Independ- 
ents. Their  chief  difference  from  the  Independents  is, 
that  they  are  less  attached  to  Calvinism,  and  consequently 
admit  a  greater  latitude  of  religious  sentiment.  It  may 
be  added,  that  their  mode  of  admitting  members  into  com- 
munion differs  from  that  commonly  practised  among  the 
Presbyterians. 

Recently  a  remarkable  change  has  taken  place  in  the 
ecclesiastical  arrangements  of  the  English  Presbyterians. 
The  Free  Church  of  (Scotland  has  erected  its  banner  in  Eng- 
land, and  is  now  rallying  its  forces.  The  character  of  this 
new  Presbyterian  church  in  England,  is  the  same  with  that 
of  the  Free  Church.  The  general  principles  of  its  doc- 
trines, order  of  worship  and  government,  may  be  found  in 
the  article  on  American  Presbyterians. 

Under  the  care  of  the  Presbyterian  Synod  of  England, 
besides  a  Theological  College,  there  are  seven  Presby- 
teries, viz. :  Berwick-on- Tweed,  Birmingham,  Cumberland, 
Lancashire,  London,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  and  Northumber- 
land. In  these  Presbyteries  there  are  73  clergymen,  78 
churches,  and  2  foreign  missionaries.  The  Synod  also 


AMEBFCAN    P  R  E  S  B  Y  T  E  tt  I  A  S  8  .  117 

attends  to  various  schemes  of  benevolence,  among  which 
are  prominont,  foreign  and  home  missions,  and  ministerial 
education.  Considering  the  comparatively  short  time  in 
which  this  progress  has  been  made,  it  appears  to  be  highly 
encouraging. 


AMERICAN  PRESBYTERIANS. 

THE  word  Presbyterian  is  often  used  in  a  wide  sense  na 
characterizing  a  large  portion  of  the  Protestant  church, 
It  embraces  all  those  denominations  which  are  opposed  to 
prelacy.  In  prelatical  church  government  and  usages,  a 
large  number  of  sects  are  included.  Thus,  the  Greek 
Church  alone  is  made  up  of  "  The  Greek  Church  proper," 
"  The  Russian  Greek  Church,"  "  The  Georgian  and  Min- 
grelian  Churches,"  "The  Nestorian  Churches,"  "The 
Christians  of  St.  Thomas,"  "The  Jacobites,"  "The  Copts," 
"  The  Abyssinians,"  "  The  Armenians,"  and  many  other 
minor  denominations.  "The  Roman  Church,"  "The  Eng- 
lish Episcopal  Church,"  and  "The  American  Episcopal 
Church,"  are  also  each  of  them  a  portion  of  that  great 
family  of  churches  included  under  the  term  Prelacy. 
These  all  agree  in  one  great  fundamental  principle.  They 
believe  that  ecclesiastical  government  is  a  gift  from  Christ 
to  priests,  and  that  they  possess  the  power  of  transmitting 
this  authority  to  their  successors.  They  differ  in  respect 
to  their  acknowledged  head;  some  of  the  Greek  Christians 
acknowledging  one  Patriarch,  and  some  another,  and  some 
the  Roman  Pontiff.  Some  Romanists  also  acknowledge 
the  Pope,  and  some  deny  his  tupremacy.  The  English 
Episcopal  Church  acknowledge  the  king,  or,  during  the 


118  AMERICAN    PRESBYTERIANS. 

present  reign,  the  queen,  as  their  head ;  while  American 
Episcopalians  account  diocesan  bishops  as  the  highest  eccle- 
siastical officers. 

Presbyterians  differ  from  Prelatists  in  respect  to  the 
source  of  ecclesiastical  authority;  and  are  divided,  per- 
haps, into  an  equal  number  of  minor  denominations.  They 
hold  that  all  ecclesiastical  authority  is  derived  from  the 
church  itself;  that  the  teaching  office  is  transmitted  by  a 
plurality  of  presbyters  or  bishops ;  and  that  the  whole 
body  of  believers,  either  as  associated,  or  by  their  repre- 
sentatives, participate  in  the  government.  A  bishop,  ac- 
cording to  the  views  of  Presbyterians,  is  the  pastor  of  a 
single  congregation.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  church  of  Ephe- 
sus,  mentioned  Acts  xx.  28,  several  bishops  or  pastors  uni- 
tedly presided  over  the  spiritual  instruction  of  a  single 
worshipping  assembly.  This  general  system  is  sometimes 
termed  ''  parity,"  because  a  leading  feature  of  it  is  the 
equal  official  dignity  of  Christian  ministers.  Prelacy  and 
Parity  divide  the  Christian  world. 

The  Presbyterian  church,  in  this  general  denomination, 
includes  Lutherans,  Dutch  Reformed,  Congregationalists, 
Baptists,  Scotch,  English,  and  American  Presbyterians. 
Among  these,  the  English  Presbyterians,  Congregational- 
ists, and  Baptists,  allow  the  popular  will  in  ecclesiastical 
matters  to  be  expressed  by  the  members  of  the  church  as 
occasion  may  demand;  while  the  Dutch  Reformed,  Scotch, 
and  American  Presbyterians  call  for  the  exercise  of  popu- 
lar liberty  in  the  election  of  lay  elders,  as  making  a  part 
of  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  and  in  the  election  and  dis- 
tnission  of  pastors,  and  in  the  entire  control  of  the  church 
edifices  and  congregational  funds. 

Presbyterianisin  acknowledges  no  authority,  in  respect 
to  the  doctrines  and  duties  of  the  Christian  church,  but 
the  will  of  God  as  found  in  the  sacred  Scriptures.  It 


AMERICAN    PRESBYTERIANS.  119 

to  ins  that  God  alone  is  Lord  of  the  conscience,  and 
hath  lift  it  free  from  the  doctrines  and  commandments  of 
men  ;  and  that  the  rights  of  private  judgment,  in  all  mat- 
ters that  respect  religion,  are  universal  and  inalienable. 
It  holds,  that  all  ecclesiastical  power  is  only  ministerial 
and  declarative ;  that  is  to  say,  that  the  Holy  Scriptures 
are  the  only  rule  of  faith  and  manners ;  that  no  church 
judicatory  ought  to  pretend  to  make  laws  tc  bind  the  con- 
science in  virtue  of  their  own  authority,  and  that  all  their 
decisions  ought  to  be  founded  upon  the  word  of  Gcd.  Ec- 
clesiastical discipline  is  purely  moral  and  spiritual  in  its 
object,  and  ought  not  to  be  attended  with  any  civil  effects; 
hence  it  can  derive  no  force  whatever  but  from  its  own 
justice,  the  approbation  of  an  impartial  public,  and  the 
favor  and  blessing  of  the  great  Head  of  the  church. 

The  officers  of  the  Presbyterian  church  are  bishops  or 
pastors,  ruling  elders,  and  deacons.  The  pastor  is  the 
spiritual  teacher  of  the  congregation.  He  is  expected  to 
preach  the  gospel  in  the  church  on  the  Lord's  day,  to  in- 
struct the  people  by  occasional  lectures,  to  superintend  the 
catechismal  teaching  of  the  young,  and  to  visit  the  sick 
and  bereaved,  and  console  them  by  spiritual  counsel  adapted 
to  their  necessities.  Ruling  elders  are  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple as  their  representatives  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  and 
to  co-operate  with  the  pastor  in  watching  over  the  spiritual 
interests  of  the  congregation.  They  are  designated  by 
the  Apostle  Paul  under  the  title  of  "governments,"  and 
as  "  those  who  rule  well,"  in  distinction  from  such  as  labor 
in  word  and  doctrine.  Deacons  are  secular  officers  whose 
duty  is  the  care  of  the  poor,  and  the  reception  and  dis- 
bursement of  the  charities  of  the  congregation. 

The  Session  is  the  primary  court  of  the  church,  and 
consists  of  the  pastor  and  the  ruling  elders.  The  pas- 
tor is  the  president,  and  has  the  title  of  "Moderator 


]°U  AMERICAN     PRESBYTERIANS. 

of  the  session."  In  this  primary  court  originates  all  the 
legislative  action  of  the  church.  If  the  superior  courts 
would  take  any  step  involving  new  constitutional  princi 
pies,  they  are  obliged  to  send  the  question  down  to  the 
church  sessions,  that  they  may  thus  know  the  will  of  the 
church  itself,  before  any  revolutionary  measures  can  be 
adopted.  The  session  is  alsc  charged  with  the  duty  of 
watching  over  the  spiritual  interests  of  the  congregation. 
It  can  summon  offenders  to  an  account  for  their  irregular- 
ities, or  their  neglect  of  Christian  duty.  It  can  investi- 
gate charges  presented  by  others,  and  admonish,  rebuke, 
or  suspend  or  exclude  from  the  Lord's  table,  those  who  are 
found  to  deserve  censure,  according  to  the  degree  of  their 
criminality.  It  is  the  business  of  the  session  also  to  ap- 
point a  delegate  of  its  own  body  to  attend,  with  the  pas- 
tor, the  higher  judicatories  of  the  church.  It  is  required 
of  the  session  to  keep  a  fair  record  of  all  its  proceedings, 
as  also  a  register  of  marriages,  baptisms,  persons  admitted 
to  the  Lord's  Supper,  deaths,  and  other  removals  of  church 
members,  and  to  transmit  these  records,  at  stated  periods, 
to  the  presbytery  for  their  inspection. 

A  Presbytery  consists  of  all  the  ministers,  and  one 
ruling  elder  from  each  church  within  a  certain  district. 
Three  ministers  and  as  many  elders  as  may  be  present 
are  necessary  to  constitute  a  quorum.  The  presbytery  has 
power  to  receive  and  issue  appeals  from  church  sessions, 
and  references  brought  before  them  in  an  orderly  manner ; 
to  examine  and  license  and  ordain  candidates  for  the  holy 
ministry  ;  to  install,  remove,  and  judge  ministers ;  to  exa- 
mine and  approve  or  censure  the  records  of  church  ses- 
sions;  to  resolve  questions  of  doctrine  or  discipline, 
seriously  and  reasonably  proposed  ;  to  condemn  erroneous 
opinions  which  injure  the  purity  or  peace  of  the  Church; 
to  visit  particular  churches  for  the  purpose  of  inquiring 


AMERICAN    PRESBYTERIANS.  12! 

into  their  state,  and  redressing  the  evils  that  may  have 
arisen  in  them  ;  to  unite  or  divide  congregations,  at  the 
request  of  the  people,  or  to  form  or  receive  new  congrega- 
tions ;  and,  in  general,  to  perform  "whatever  may  be  deemed 
necessary  to  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  churches  under 
tlieir  care. 

A  Synod  consists  of  several  presbyteries  united.  Not 
less  than  three  presbyteries  are  necessary  to  compose  a 
synod.  It  is  not  made  up  of  representatives  from  the 
presbyteries,  as  presbyteries  are  of  representatives  from 
the  sessions.  On  the  contrary,  each  member  of  all  the 
presbyteries  included  in  its  bounds  is  a  member  of  the 
synod,  so  that  a  synod  is  nothing  different  from  a  larger 
presbytery,  constituted  by  a  combination  of  several  pres- 
byteries into  one.  The  synod  reviews  the  records  of  pres- 
byteries, approving  or  censuring  their  proceedings,  erect- 
ing new  presbyteries,  uniting  or  dividing  those  which  were 
before  erected,  taking  a  general  care  of  the  churches 
within  its  bounds,  and  proposing  such  measures  to  the 
General  Assembly  as  may  be  for  advantage  to  the  whole 
church.  The  synod  is  a  court  of  appeal  for  the  presby- 
teries within  its  bounds,  having  the  same  relation  to  the 
presbyterial  courts  which  the  presbyteries  have  to  the 
sessions. 

The  General  Assembly  is  the  highest  judicatory  in  the 
Presbyterian  Church.  It  is  constituted  of  an  equal  dele- 
gation of  pastors  and  elders  from  the  presbyteries.  In 
one  branch  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  America,  the 
General  Assembly  is  an  appellate  court ;  in  the  other  it  ia 
only  an  advisory  council,  except  that  it  possesses  power  to 
review  the  proceedings  of  the  inferior  bodies,  and  to  de- 
cide, as  a  supreme  court,  the  meaning  of  the  constitution. 

The  General  Assembly  is  not  necessary  to  the  most  per- 
fect development  of  Presbyterian  Church  government, 
11 


122  AMERICAN    PRESBYTERIANS. 

nor,  indeed,  is  any  court  higher  than  the  Presbytery ;  but 
it  has  this  obvious  advantage,  of  representing  all  the  con- 
gregations of  this  denomination  nnder  the  same  civil 
government  in  a  single  body.  Thus,  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  arid  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  United  States,  before  either  was  divided,  presented 
an  imposing  influence  in  the  visible  unity  of  each. 

The  Church  Sessions  meet  at  stated  periods,  as  often  as 
may  be  deemed  necessary.  In  some  churches  they  con- 
vene once  in  each  week;  in  others  less  frequently.  Pres- 
byteries hold  two  stated  meetings  in  a  year,  while  the 
synods  in  the  United  States  meet  annually.  IK  the  two 
great  branches  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States,  one  General  Assembly  meets  annually,  and  the 
other  triennially.  It  is  a  rule  in  all  the  judicatories  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  that  the  meetings  shall  be  con- 
stituted with  prayer.  In  the  stated  meetings  of  presby- 
teries, synods,  and  the  General  Assembly,  the  session  is 
opened  by  a  sermon  from  the  Moderator,  or  presiding  offi- 
cer of  the  preceding  meeting. 

The  Doctrines  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  are  Calvin- 
istic  —  the  doctrines  of  all  the  leading  Reformers ;  of  the 
Waldenses,  for  five  or  six  hundred  years  before  the  Refor- 
mation ;  of  Augustin  and  the  primitive  Church.  They 
are  substantially  the  same  with  the  doctrinal  symbols  of 
the  Synod  of  Dort,  the  Heidelberg  Confession  and  Cate- 
chism, and  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  of  the  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United 
States.  No  other  branch  of  the  Reformed  Churches  has 
maintained  Caivinistic  doctrines  with  so  much  tenacious- 
ness  as  Presbyterians.  While  the  Earl  of  Chatham  could 
say  of  his  own  Church  of  England,  "  We  have  a  Popish 
liturgy,  a  Caivinistic  creed,  and  an  Arminian  clergy ;" 
and  while  that  denomination  seem  to  be  engaged  in  an 


AMERICAN    PRESBYTERIANS.  123 

•nterminable  controversy  to  decide  whether  their  branch 
of  the  Church  ought  to  he  considered  Arminian  or  Calvin- 
istic,  the  Presbyterian  Church  is  unitedly  Calvinistic,  so 
that  any  man  who  should  avow  himself  Arminian  could 
not  obtain  ordination  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  either 
Scotland  or  America. 

The  system  of  doctrine  is  clearly  set  forth  in  the  West- 
minster Confession  of  Faith,  and  the  Larger  and  Shorter 
Catechisms. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  origi- 
nated in  a  union  of  immigrants  from  Ireland  and  England 
—  a  blending  of  Irish  Presbyterianism  and  English  Con- 
gregationalism. The  first  presbytery  formed  in  this  coun- 
try was  the  presbytery  of  Philadelphia,  organized  in  1704. 
The  synod  of  Philadelphia  was  erected  in  1716,  and  was 
composed  of  the  presbyteries  of  Philadelphia,  Snow  Hill, 
Newcastle,  and  Long  Island. 

In  1741  the  Church  was  divided  in  consequence  of  the 
inharmonious  elements  of  which  it  was  composed,  and  the 
synod  of  New  York  was  formed.  Fifteen  years  after  the 
separation,  in  1758,  the  synods  of  New  York  and  Phila 
delphia  were  united  again.  In  1789,  the  year  of  the  first 
meeting  of  the  General  Assembly,  there  were  in  the 
Church  188  Presbyterian  ministers  and  419  churches.  In 
1832  there  were  21  synods,  110  presbyteries,  935  minis- 
ters, 2281  churches,  and  17,348  communicants.  In  1837, 
the  Presbyterian  Church  was  again  thrown  into  a  state  of 
disunion,  and  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  portions, 
Among  so  able  and  pious  a  body  of  men,  the  principles  of 
the  gospel  are  justly  expected  to  exert  their  legitimate 
influence  ;  it  can  subserve  no  benefit  to  record  the  grounds 
of  a  dissension  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  only  temporary. 

These  two  branches  of  the  Church  are  dist'nguished 
from  each  other  by  the  circumstance  that  one  holds  the 


124  REFORMED    PRESBYTERIANS. 

meeting  of  its  General  Assembly  annually ;  -while  the 
other  meets  only  triennially. 

According  to  the  Minutes  of  the  General  Assembly 
(Old  School)  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  for  1859,  that  branch  of  the  Church  has  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Assembly  33  synods,  168  presbyteries,  297 
licentiates,  493  candidates  for  the  ministry,  2577  minis- 
ters, 3487  churches,  and  279,630  communicants ;  and  the 
whole  amount  contributed  for  congregational  and  other 
purposes  in  the  year  ending  May,  1859,  was  $2,835,147. 

By  the  Minutes  of  the  General  Assembly  (New  School) 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  for  1859, 
that  branch  of  the  Church  has  108  presbyteries,  1545 
ministers,  134  licentiates,  370  candidates,  1542  churches, 
137,990  communicants  ;  and  it  expends  annually  on  Do- 
mestic Missions,  $91,402;  on  Foreign  Missions,  $67,796; 
on  Education,  $65,707  ;  and  on  Publications,  $44,667. 


REFORMED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH. 

IN  1588  the  Scotch  Protestants  entered  into  an  associa- 
tion which  they  denominated  "  The  Covenant"  The  object 
of  this  arrangement  was  to  protect  themselves  against  an 
expected  invasion  from  Spain  by  the  famous  "invincible 
armada."  The  union  of  the  crowns  of  Scotland  and  Eng- 
land in  1603  resulted  in  a  hierarchy,  which  was  deemed 
dangerous,  in  the  hist  degree,  to  the  Presbyterian  interests. 
This  united  in  still  closer  bonds  the  friends  of  parity,  and 
of  ecclesiastical  liberty.  In  1637  the  new  liturgy,  modelled 
after  the  English,  was  ordered  to  be  introduced  into  the 
churches  of  Scotland.  The  most  determined  resistance 
ensued,  which  terminated  in  a  new  covenant  the  year  fol 


REFORMED    PRESBYTERIANS.  125 

lowing.  While  Charles  I.  and  the  Parliament  were  con- 
tending, the  Protestants  in  Scotland  entered  into  "  a  solemn 
league  and  covenant"  with  the  English  Parliament,  by 
which  the  independence  of  the  Presbyterian  churches  waa 
confirmed.  On  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  in  1661,  this 
covenant  was  abolished.  These  successive  struggles  seemed 
to  have  engendered  a  habit  of  making  firm  compacts  for 
maintaining  what  they  considered  important  principles ;  a 
habit  which  continues  till  this  day. 

At  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary  in  1689,  Episco- 
pacy was  established  in  England  and  Ireland,  and  Presby- 
terianism  in  Scotland. 

A  portion  of  the  Scottish  Kirk  declined  to  avail  them- 
selves of  an  establishment  of  this  kind,  and  covenanted  to 
resist  it,  and  protested  that  it  was  at  variance  with  the 
"  solemn  league  and  covenant"  which  they  considered  a 
part  of  the  constitution  of  the  empire.  They  maintained 
that  the  civil  rulers  had  usurped  an  authority  over  the 
church  which  conflicted  with  the  proper  headship  of  the 
Redeemer. 

For  fifteen'Or  sixteen  years  these  staunch  and  determined 
men  remained  without  pastors,  preserving  their  distinct 
social  existence  by  uniting  in  praying  societies,  and  meeting 
statedly  for  religious  worship. 

In  1706  the  Rev.  Johr  MacMillan  joined  them  from  the 
Established  Church.  In  1743,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Nairne,  from 
the  Secession  Church,  then  recently  organized,  acceded  to 
them ;  and  these  two  clergymen,  with  ruling  elders,  consti- 
tuted the  "Reformed  Presbytery."  Several  families  had, 
in  the  meantime,  emigrated  to  the  American  colonies. 

About  the  same  time  in  which  the  "  Reformed  Presby- 
tery" was  organized  in  Scotland,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Craighead 
collected  the  Covenanters  of  Pennsylvania,  and  induced 
them  to  bind  themselves  together  by  a  solemn  pubtfo  en 
11 « 


126  REFORMED    PRESBYTERIANS. 

gagement  to  maintain  their  peculiar  principles.  Their  body 
was  slowly  augmented,  mostly  by  immigration,  till  they 
were  joined  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cuthbertson,  from  the  Reformed 
Presbytery  of  Scotland,  in  1752 ;  and  Rev.  Messrs.  Lin 
and  Dobbin,  from  the  Reformed  Presbytery  in  Ireland,  in 
1774.  This  year  the  Reformed  Presbytery  was  organized 
in  the  colony  of  Pennsylvania. 

Their  growth  was  slow  till  1782,  when  a  union  was  effected 
between  the  Reformed  Presbytery  and  the  Associate  Pres- 
byterian Church.  Hence  arose  a  new  organization,  deno- 
minated, from  the  name  of  its  two  constituent  elements,  the 
"Associate  Reformed  Church." 

This  union,  instead  of  combining  two  bodies  in  one,  left 
a  small  minority  in  each  of  the  elementary  portions,  which 
perpetuated  the  original  organizations ;  so  that,  in  fact, 
two  churches  were  divided  into  three,  —  an  instructive  in 
stance  of  the  influence  of  hasty  and  forced  combinations 
of  bodies  of  men. 

The  doctrinal  principles  of  the  Reformed  Church  are 
thoroughly  Calvinistic.  The  Reformed  Presbyterians  ob- 
jected to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  when  it  was 
formed,  on  account  of  its  having  no  exclusive  religious 
character,  and  its  tolerating  Jews,  Mohammedans,  Deists, 
and  Atheists.  They  also  objected  to  its  recognition  of  sla- 
very. They  declared  that  they  would  not  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance. 

In  1830,  a  portion  of  their  ministers  began  to  entertain 
different  views,  and  were  in  favor  of  acknowledging  the 
government  of  this  country,  and  avowing  allegiance  to  it 
This  led  to  what  was  called  the  New  Light  Controversy, 
and  the  formation  of  two  organizations,  which  still  remain 
separated. 

The  entire  body  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterians  in  the 
United  States,  including  both  these  organizations,  embraces 


REFORMED     PRESBYTERIANS.  127 

108  ministers,  15  licentiates,  25  students  of  Theology >  160 
congregations,  and  14,000  communicants.  Among  the 
well-known  and  distinguished  ministers  of  this  connection 
:tre  the  late  Alexander  McLeod,  D.  D.}  and  Rev.  Samuel 
B.  Wylie. 

The  two  bodies  are  known  as  "  The  General  Synod " 
(which  acknowledges  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.)  and 
"  the  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church"  (which 
denounces  the  Constitution  as  sinful).  The  General  Synod 
had  one  congregation  in  the  South  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  rebellion,  at  Fayetteville,  Tennessee.  Strenuous  ef- 
forts were  in  vain  made  to  induce  the  people  to  swear 
allegiance  to  the  rebel  government.  Every  one  refused, 
and  as  a  consequence  most  of  the  members  had  to  flee  to 
the  free  States. 

In  1867,  the  General  Synod  numbered  8  Presbyteries,  66 
ministers,  91  congregations  and  8324  members.  Given 
for  all  purposes,  $123,097.34,  or  more  than  $15  per 
member.  The  theological  seminary  had  an  endowment 
of  $23,000  and  16  students.  The  next  year  showed  a  far- 
ther increase.  There  were  77  pastors  and  8487  members. 
This  was  the  culmination  of  its  prosperity.  Wide  and 
irreconcilable  diiferences  were  arising  in  the  body,  which, 
though  not  created,  were  developed,  by  the  movement  for 
reunion  going  on  among  Presbyterians. 

Those  broad  sentiments  of  Christian  sympathy  and 
liberality  which  had  been  developed  among  evangelical 
Christians  of  the  North  by  the  war,  and  especially  by  the 
labors  of  the  Christian  Commission,  had  their  embodi- 
ment in  a  leading  member  of  this  denomination,  who  had 
been  the  president  of  the  Christian  Commission.  Mr. 
George  H.  Stuart  earnestly  desired  to  see  his  church  take 
the  honored  place  of  a  pioneer  in  the  reunion  of  the 
various  Presbyterian  Churches.  It  was  due  to  his  zeal 


128  REFORMED     PRESBYTERIANS. 

and  activity,  that  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church,  at 
the  meeting  of  the  general  Synod,  May,  1867,  invited  a 
National  Convention  of  Presbyterians  of  all  branches  to 
meet  in  Philadelphia,  to  consider  the  subject  of  a  general 
union.  This  Convention  met  in  November,  and  embraced 
delegates  from  six  different  organizations.  The  first  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church,  Dr.  "Wylie  pastor,  was  the 
place  of  meeting,  and  Mr.  Stuart  was  elected  chairman. 
Offence  was  given  to  the  more  rigid  portion  of  the  Re- 
formed body  by  the  enthusiastic  proceedings  of  this  Con- 
vention. The  adherents  of  an  inspired  psalmody  were 
shocked  at  the  singing  of  hymns.  They  were  in  no  hurry 
to  surrender  their  distinctive  principles.  So,  when  the 
General  Synod  met  the  next  year,  a  very  decided  opposi- 
tion to  the  movement  was  shown  by  the  majority  of  the 
members.  Union  only  with  those  whose  doctrines,  order, 
and  worship  corresponded  with  their  own,  was  now  ad- 
vocated, and  all  direct  overtures  were  confined  to  psalm- 
singing  and  close-communion  bodies. 

Mr.  George  II.  Stuart  and  his  friends  being  thus  out- 
voted, and  yet  boldly  maintaining  the  rightfulness  of 
their  liberal  position,  it  was  decided  by  a  majority  vote  to 
censure  and  suspend  Mr.  Stuart  for  singing  hymns  and 
communing  with  persons  not  members  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  Thirteen  delegates  to  the  Synod  issued  a  formal 
protest  against  this  action. 

Mr.  Stuart  was  sustained  by  his  pastor,  Dr.  Wylie,  by 
the  First  Church  and  by  his  Presbytery.  Consequently, 
at  the  meeting  of  the  next  General  Synod,  the  delegates 
from  the  Presbytery  were  refused  admission.  The  Pres- 
bytery has  since  suspended  relations  with  the  Synod,  and 
remains  in  that  condition. 

The  Allegheny  Presbytery,  also  sympathizing  with  Mr. 
Stuart  sent  a  protest  against  Synod's  action,  and  was 


RFFOKMED     PRESBYTERIAN  S.  129 

pronounced  out  of  communion,  in  reply.  In  1870  it  was 
received  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  reunited  Pres- 
byterian Church. 

The  missionary  Presbytery  of  Saharanpur  having,  on 
similar  grounds,  suspended  relations  to  the  Synod,  it  was 
declared  in  secession.  Steps  were  taken,  however,  to  re- 
tain it  in  communion  if  possible,  and  to  secure  to  the 
Synod  control  of  its  property. 

A  basis  of  union  was  agreed  upon  in  1869  for  an 
organic  union  with  the  United  Presbyterians,  but  it  has 
not  yet  (1871)  been  carried  into  effect. 

The  total  number  of  ministers  and  licentiates  reported 
in  1870  was  41 ;  the  attendance  at  the  synod  of  1871 
was  24. 

"  The  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church," 
at  its  meeting  in  1869,  formally  reiterate*  \  iis  position  of 
hostility  toward  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  as 
an  irreligious  document,  which  could  no~  oj  accepted  and 
approved  by  a  Christian  people  without  sin,  and  declared 
it  the  duty  of  citizens  to  refuse  to  co-operate  with  a 
government  thus  founded. 

There  is  a  college  at  North  wood,  Ohio,  and  a  theo- 
logical seminary  connected  with  this  Church;  it  has  a 
mission  among  the  freedmen  at  Washington.  In  1870 
it  had  8  Presbyteries,  87  congregations,  86  ministers,  8577 
communicants.  The  total  of  contributions  reported  ex- 
ceeded $1 50,000. 


130      ASSOCIATE  PRESBYTERIANS, 


THE  ASSOCIATE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH, 
OR  SECEDERS. 

THIS,  like  the  church  just  described,  is  an  offshoot  from 
the  Church  of  Scotland.  The  cause  of  the  secession  was 
almost  identical  in  its  nature  with  that  of  the  great  seces- 
sion of  1843,  by  means  of  which  the  Free  Church  was 
created.  In  1649,  the  patronage  of  kirks  had  been  for- 
mally abolished  by  parliament,  as  "  an  evil  and  bondage," 
as  "a  custom  popish,"  and  as  "prejudicial  to  the  liberties 
of  the  people." 

The  act  of  parliament  above  referred  to  remained  in 
force  until  the  year  1712,  when  the  doctrine  of  patronage 
was  again  revived.  Many  protested  against  it  loudly  at 
the  time.  The  right  of  patronage  was,  for  a  while,  exer- 
cised with  great  moderation.  A  case  arose,  however,  in 
which  a  minister  was  forced  upon  a  congregation  against 
the  wishes  of  the  great  body  of  the  people.  The  proceed- 
ing came  before  the  General  Assembly  at  its  next  session 
In  May,  1732,  and  this,  together  with  other  similar  cases, 
led  to  the  adoption  of  an  act  "Anent  planting  vacant 
churches,"  wherein  the  general  doctrine  of  patronage  waa 
strongly  asserted.  In  the  October  following,  the  Rev. 
Ebenezer  Erskine,  a  minister  of  distinguished  ability  and 
influence,  in  a  sermon  preached  at  the  opening  of  the 
Synod  of  Perth  and  Sterling,  denounced,  with  great  free- 


'ASSOCIATE  PRESBYTERIANS.         .131 

dom,  the  Act  of  Assembly  above  referred  to.  Mr.  Erskine 
was  censured  by  the  synod,  and  hence  arose  the  secession 
and  the  organization  of  the  "Associate  Presbytery  of 
Scotland."  This  organization  occurred  November  17th, 
1733.  Its  growth,  as  might  have  been  expected,  was 
rapid,  and  in  1744  a  synod  was  formed.  The  year  fol- 
lowing, a  controversy  commenced,  which  resulted  in  the 
division  of  the  synod  into  two  parties,  each  claiming  to  be 
the  "Associate  Synod."  The  occasion  of  the  disruption 
was  the  taking  or  not  taking  the  burghers'  oath.  In  order 
to  be  admitted  burghers,  or  freemen  of  towns,  an  oath  was 
required  containing  the  following  clause :  "  I  protest  before 
God  and  your  lordship,  that  I  profess  and  allow,  with  all 
my  heart,  the  true  religion,  presently  professed  within 
this  realm,  and  authorized  by  the  laws  thereof;  that  I 
shall  abide  thereat,  and  defend  the  same  to  my  life's  end, 
renouncing  the  Roman  religion  called  Papistry."  The 
controversy  turned  on  the  question  whether  it  was  right 
to  take  an  oath  which  implied  an  approval  of  the  estab- 
lished church.  The  division  was  completed  in  1746. 
Those  who  opposed  the  lawfulness  of  the  oath  were  termed 
Anti-burghers,  and  its  advocates  Burghers.  The  act  re- 
quiring the  oath  objected  to,  being  repealed,  the  parties 
again  coalesced,  taking  the  title  of  The  United  Secession 
Church,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  minority  of  the 
Anti-burghers,  who  only  are  represented  in  the  United 
States  by  a  regular  organization. 

At  an  early  day  some  of  the  secession  emigrated  to  this 
country.  The  Rev.  Messrs.  Gellatly  and  Arnot  were  sent 
over  by  the  Synod  to  organize  congregations  and  to  con- 
stitute them  into  a  presbytery.  They  reached  the  province 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1754,  and  organized  the  Associate 
Presbytery  in  the  November  of  that  year. 

In  1776,  the  number  of  ministers  having  increased  to 


132  ASSOCIATE    PRESBYTERIANS. 

thirteen,  the  presbytery  was  divided,  and  the  eastern 
portion  was  denominated  the  "  Presbytery  of  New  York." 

In  1782,  the  division  occurred  by  which  the  Associate 
Reformed  Church  came  into  existence,  a  more  full  history 
of  which  may  be  found  in  the  preceding  account  of  the 
Reformed  Church. 

By  this  division,  the  Associate  Church  in  this  country 
Was  almost  extinguished. 

The  Synod  of  Scotland,  however,  despatched  assistance, 
and  the  church  was  gradually  strengthened  until  the 
formation  of  the  Synod  in  1800.  This  was  denominated 
"The  Associate  Synod  of  North  America."  It  held  its 
first  meeting  in  Philadelphia,  May,  1801.  This  body  was 
subordinate  to  the  Associate  Synod  in  the  mother  country, 
till  it  was  declared  a  co-ordinate  Synod  by  the  General 
Associate  Synod  of  Scotland,  in  1818. 

In  1841,  a  controversy  arose  in  respect  to  principles 
involved  in  some  cases  of  discipline,  and  the  minority 
declared  themselves  the  Synod.  Since  that  time,  until 
recently,  there  have  been  two  bodies  claiming  the  same 
name.  Within  a  short  time  the  two  bodies  have  coalesced. 

From  the  larger  of  these  bodies  another  secession  took 
place  in  1845,  denominating  itself  "The  Associate  Pres- 
bytery of  Philadelphia." 

The  Associate  Presbyterian  Church  in  this  country  is, 
in  all  its  branches,  decidedly  Calvinistic  in  doctrine.  It 
insists  upon  the  use  of  the  literal  translation  of  the  Psalms 
in  its  singing.  It  maintains  a  high  standard  of  duty  in 
respect  to  the  education  of  its  children  in  the  fear  of  God, 
making  it  an  offence  worthy  of  discipline  if  parents  neglect 
to  teach  their  children  the  Shorter  Catechism.  It  possesses 
a  learned  and  pious  ministry.  It  has  a  Theological  Semi- 
nary at  Xenia,  Ohio,  with  two  Professorships,  one  of 


ASSOCIATE    REFORMED    CHURCH.          133 

didactic  theology  and  Hebrew,  and  one  of  pastoral  theology 
and  biblical  literature.     Students  45. 

The  strength  of  the  whole  Associate  Church  in  this 
country  is  20  presbyteries,  164  ministers,  267  congrega- 
tions, 21,588  communicants. 


THE  ASSOCIATE  REFORMED  CHURCH. 

THIS  branch  of  the  Presbyterian  family  of  churches  was 
called  into  existence,  and  took  its  name  from  a  union  that 
was  formed  between  large  portions  of  the  Associate  and 
the  Reformed  Presbyterian  churches  at  Pequa,  Pennsylva- 
nia, in  June,  1782.  Modifying  the  doctrine  of  the  West- 
minster Confession  of  Faith  concerning  the  power  of  the 
civil  magistrate  in  matters  of  religion,  and  adapting  the 
form  of  church  government  and  the  directory  of  worship 
to  the  Word  of  God,  and  the  circumstances  of  the  church 
in  this  country,  the  synod  formally  issued  its  constitution 
and  standards  at  Greencastle,  Pa,,  May  31,  1799. 

Soon  afterwards,  there  being,  from  various  quarters,  an 
urgent  demand  for  sound  and  faithful  ministers,  the  erec- 
tion of  a  theological  seminary  was  taken  into  serious  con- 
sideration ;  and,  in  1801,  the  Rev.  John  M.  Mason  was  sent 
to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  with  authority  to  procure  a 
suitable  number  of  evangelical  ministers  and  probationers, 
and  to  solicit  donations,  in  money  and  books,  for  establish- 
ing an  institution  to  train  young  men  for  the  gospel  min- 
istry. He  met  with  considerable  success ;  and,  immediately 
on  his  return,  the  synod  (which,  in  the  autumn  of  1802, 
had  divided  itself,  for  the  convenience  of  its  members,  into 
four  synods,  and  formed  these  into  a  general  synod,  to 
meet  by  delegation,  and  to  hold  its  first  meeting  at  Greeu- 
castle.  May,  1804)  took  steps  for  establishing  its  theological 


134          ASSOCIATE    REFORMED    CHURCH. 

Bchool  Their  arrangements  were  completed  in  May, 
1805.  The  Rev.  J.  M.  Mason,  D.  D.,  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor ;  and  on  the  1st  of  November  following,  the  institu- 
tution  went  into  successful  operation.  It  was  the  first 
theological  seminary  in  the  United  States 

Thus  established,  the  synod  pursued  its  course,  and  was 
largely  prospered  until  about  the  year  1816,  when,  from  a 
gradual  relinquishment  of  some  of  its  distinctive  features, 
and  the  withdrawal,  on  that  account,  of  the  synods  of  Sciotp 
into  the  West,  and  of  the  Carolinas,  in  the  South,  its  interests 
materially  declined. 

In  May,  1822,  a  partial  union  was  formed  with  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  the  General 
Synod  was  dissolved.  The  subordinate  synods,  however, 
continued  their  existence,  and  were  active  and  useful  in 
their  work.  Again  the  demand  for  ministers  trained  in 
the  church,  and  sympathizing  with  it,  in  everything  in  which 
it  was  peculiar,  was  strong  and  urgent.  Shortly  afterwards, 
therefore,  the  synod  of  the  "West  established  a  seminary  at 
Alleghany,  Pa.  The  Rev.  Joseph  Kerr  was  its  first  pro- 
fessor ;  and  under  his  care,  and  that  of  his  successors,  Rev. 
Mungo  Dick  and  Rev.  John  T.  Pressly,  D.  D.,  it  has  been 
instrumental  in  furnishing  the  churches  with  a  large  num- 
ber of  able  ministers  of  the  New  Testament.  In  1829  the 
Synod  of  New  York  revived  the  seminary  at  Newburgh, 
and  placed  it  under  the  care  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  MacCarroll, 
D.  D.  Already  it  has  sent  many  laborers  into  the  field; 
and  with  an  excellent  building,  a  most  valuable  library,  a 
good  location,  and  an  able  professor,  it  presents  most  im- 
portant facilities  for  a  theological  education.  A  younger, 
but  flourishing  and  valuable  theological  institution  was  also 
formed  in  1839  by  the  second  synod  of  the  West,  at  Oxford, 
Ohio,  under  the  presidency  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  Claybaugh, 
D.  D.  At  Due-west-coruer,  Abbeville  district,  S.  C.,  au 


ASSOCIATE    REFORMED    CHtiRCH.          135 

institution  with  literary  and  theological  departments  has 
also  been  opened,  under  the  most  auspicious  circumstances. 
It  is  under  the  charge  of  four  professors  appointed  by  the 
synod  of  the  South,  and  already  numbers  over  one  hundred 
students. 

In  each  of  these  synods  there  is  a  periodical  devoted  to 
the  interests  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Church,  namely, 
in  the  order  of  their  history :  The  Evangelical  Guardian, 
edited  by  the  Rev.  D.  Macdill,  D.  D.,  at  Hamilton,  Ohio ; 
The  Christian  Magazine  of  the  South,  by  Rev.  J.  Boyce, 
in  Fairfield  district,  S.  C.  ;  The  Preacher,  by  Rev.  D.  R. 
Kerr,  at  Pittsburg,  Pa. ;  and  The  Christian  Instructor,  by 
Rev.  J.  B.  Dales,  at  Philadelphia.  Besides  projecting  and 
sustaining  these  institutions  and  publications,  the  Associate 
Reformed  Church  has  commenced  a  most  interesting  mis- 
sion to  Palestine  ;  taken  incipient  steps  for  one  in  Western 
Africa ;  appointed  two  ministers  to  explore  Texas  during 
the  coming  season,  and  resolves  upon  a  special  effort  to 
seek  the  lost  sheep  of  the  house  of  Israel  in  our  large  cities, 
and  point  them  to  the  true  Messiah,  as  soon  as  the  proper 
men  can  be  employed. 

The  Associate  Reformed  Church  is  the  most  liberal  and 
efficient  of  all  the  branches  of  the  early  Scotch  Secession 
churches.  It  has  numbered  among  its  ministry  some  of  the 
most  brilliant  lights  of  learning  and  religion  in  this  country. 
It  is  thoroughly  Calvinistic  in  doctrine,  maintains  the  literal 
psalmody,  and  is  very  strict  in  its  discipline. 

The  Rev.  John  Mason,  and  his  son,  John  M.  Mason,  D.  D.; 
Rev.  James  Proudfit,  and  Alexander  Proudfit,  D.  D.,  the 
late  eminent  and  beloved  advocate  of  African  colonization, 
were  men  to  adorn  any  church,  and  any  age.  At  the  pre- 
sent time  the  Associate  Reformed  Church  comprises  5 
synods,  84  presbyteries,  upwards  of  315  ministers,  more 
I  ban  375  churches,  and  about  40,000  members. 


loG  UNITED     PRESBYTERIANS. 


UNITED  PRESBYTERIANS. 

In  1858,  the  "Associate  Reformed"  and  the  "Associ- 
ate" Presbyterian  Churches  (the  two  last-named  bodies) 
were  united  into  one  organization,  called  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  in  North  America,  and  forming  a 
body  more  than  fifty  thousand  strong.  They  hold  to 
the  obligation  of  using  only  an  inspired  psalmody  in 
worship,  and  they  are  exclusive  in  their  terms  of  com- 
munion. Otherwise  they  cannot  be  distinguished  from, 
the  great  body  of  Presbyterians  in  America  in  polity  or 
in  doctrine.  Their  membership  is  almost  exclusively 
Scotch  or  Scotch-Irish,  or  the  immediate  descendants  of 
such.  Their  position  on  national  questions  is  strongly 
anti-slavery,  and  though  owning  allegiance  to  the  Con- 
stitution, they  have  always  shown  great  desire  to  secure 
an  amendment  distinctly  recognizing  at  least  the  being  of 
God  in  that  instrument.  Strong  loyal  and  anti-slavery 
resolutions  were  adopted  during  the  war. 

Rev.  W.  C.  McCune,  one  of  the  ministers  ol  the  body, 
was  arraigned  before  his  Synod  in  1866,  for  holding  loose 
or  liberal  views  on  the  terms  of  communion  and  admis- 
sion to  church  membership.  The  Synod  cleared  him, 
but  the  case  coming  up  on  appeal  to  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  following  year,  the  course  of  the  Synod  was 
condemned  by  an  overwhelming  vote,  and  the  case  was 
referred  back  to  Mr.  McC.'s  Presbytery.  Mr.  McCune 
withdre  •  to  another  branch  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
where  the  terms  are  less  stringent. 

In  1868,  by  a  unanimous  vote,  the  General  Assembly 
declared  that  the  terms  of  union  between  all  the  Presby- 


UNITED     PRESBYTERIANS.  337 

terian  branches  in  America,  proposed  by  the  Philadelphia 
convention  of  1867,  as  a  whole,  would  not  answer  the 
purpose.  There  must  be  no  relinquishment  of  principle 
for  union,  and  especially  is  unqualified  assent  to  the  Con- 
fession and  Catechisms  indispensable. 

Statistics   of  1870:     8  synods,    56   presbyteries,    553 
ministers,  729  congregations,  69,807  members.      Contri- 
butions to  general  benevolence,  $178,155.    Total  contribu 
tions,  $827,126.    Average  per  member,  $11.64.     Salaries 
of  pastors  averaged  by  Synods,  $787. 


The  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  South  reported 
63  ministers  in  1870.  Negotiations  for  union  with  the 
Southern  Presbyterian  Church  were  carried  on  about  the 
close  of  the  war,  but  without  result.  One  of  the  Presby- 
teries, however,  was  received  by  the  Synod  of  Alabama 
in  1866. 

The  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  New  York  had,  in 
1867,  16  ministers  and  1631  communicants. 

The  Associate  Synod  of  North  America  also  had  22 
ministers  and  778  communicants. 

The  last  two  bodies  are  fragments  of  the  Associate  and 
Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian  Churches,  who  refused 
to  go  with  the  mass  of  their  fellow-members  into  the 
union  by  which  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  was 
formed. 


138          CUMBERLAND    PRESBYTERIANS. 


CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIANS. 

ABOUT  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  there  arose 
a  remarkable  revival  of  religion  among  a  portion  of  the 
Presbyterian  church  in  Kentucky.  Meetings  were  held 
in  the  open  air ;  and  multitudes  flooked  together  from  the 
distance  of  fifty,  and  even  in  some  instances,  a  hundred 
miles.  This  was  the  origin  of  camp-meetings.  As  the 
number  of  converts  was  great,  and  religion  was  extended 
into  destitute  and  neglected  regions,  a  strong  necessity  was 
felt  for  a  more  rapid  multiplication  of  Christian  ministers. 
This  led  the  Cumberland  Presbytery,  in  1801,  to  encourage 
four  laymen,  without  a  classical  education,  to  prepare 
written  discourses  with  *»  view  to  the  receiving  of  license 
to  preach  the  gospel.  In  1803  Mr.  Alexander  Anderson, 
and  Mr.  Finis  Ewing,  were  ordained  to  the  work  of  the 
ministry.  Others  were  licensed  as  probationers,  and  several 
candidates  were  received  under  the  care  of  the  presbytery. 

In  1805,  the  Synod  of  Kentucky,  in  reviewing  the  book 
of  records  of  the  Cumberland  Presbytery,  took  notice  of 
their  having  introduced  men  into  the  sacred  office  who  had 
not  acquired  a  regular  education,  and  who  were  understood 
to  have  taken  exceptions  to  the  doctrinal  standards  of  the 
Church.  This  led  to  the  appointment  of  a  commission, 
with  full  powers  to  act  in  the  place  of  the  synod,  botfh  in 
holding  a  friendly  conference  with  the  presbytery,  and  in 
judicially  terminating  the  case. 

•  The  commission  demanded  that  all  those  persons  who 
had  been  ordained  or  licensed  without  an  examination  on 
all  the  branches  of  learning  and  doctrine  required  in  the 
Confession  of  Faith,  should  appear  before  themselves,  and 


CUMBERLAND    PRESBYTERIANS.  139 

Bubmit  to  a  full  and  regular  examination.    To  this  demand 
•>he  presbytery  declined  to  submit. 

The  commission  then  passed  a  resolution  that  those  who 
had  been  thus  licensed  or  ordained  without  a  full  examina- 
tion, should  be  prohibited  from  the  exercise  of  official 
functions,  until  such  times  as  they  should  submit  them- 
selves to  their  jurisdiction. 

The  members  of  presbytery  continued  to  exercise  their^ 
ministry,  but  not  without  making  various  efforts,  during  a 
period  of  five  years,  to  obtain  through  the  General  As- 
sembly a  "redress  of  grievances."  Having  failed  in  all 
these  endeavors,  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Ewing,  King,  and 
McAdow,  in  1810,  declared  themselves  independent,  and 
constituted  the  Cumberland  Presbytery,  which  was  the 
germ  of  the  present  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church. 
In  constituting  the  church,  the  following  statement  is 
made  as  denning  their  position  : 

"  We,  Samuel  McAdow,  Finis  Ewing,  and  Samuel  King, 
regularly  ordained  ministers  of  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
against  whom  no  charge  either  of  immorality  or  heresy 
has  ever  been  exhibited  before  any  judicature  of  the 
church,  having  waited  in  vain  more  than  four  years,  in  the 
mean  time  petitioning  the  General  Assembly  for  a  redress 
of  grievances,  and  a  restoration  of  our  violated  rights, 
have  and  do  hereby  agree  and  determine  to  constitute  our- 
selves into  a  presbytery,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Cum- 
berland Presbytery,  on  the  following  conditions  : 

"All  candidates  for  the  ministry,  who  may  hereafter  be 
licensed  by  this  presbytery,  and  all  the  licentiates  or  pro- 
bationers who  may  hereafter  be  ordained  by  this  presby- 
tery, shall  be  required,  before  such  licensure  and  ordina- 
tion, to  receive  and  accept  the  Confession  of  Faith  and 
Discipline  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  except  the  idea  of 
fatality  that  seems  to  be  taught  under  the  mysterious  doc- 


140  CUMBERLAND    PRESBYTERIANS. 

trine  of  predestination.  It  is  to  be  understood,  however, 
that  such  as  can  clearly  receive  the  Confession  of  Faith 
without  an  exception,  will  not  be  required  to  make  any. 
Moreover,  all  licentiates,  before  they  are  set  apart  to  the 
whole  work  of  the  ministry,  or  ordained,  shall  be  required 
to  undergo  an  examination  in  English  Grammar,  Geogra- 
phy, Astronomy,  Natural  and  Moral  Philosophy,  and 
Church  History.  It  will  not  be  understood  that  examina- 
tions in  Experimental  Religion  and  Theology  will  be 
omitted.  The  presbytery  may  also  require  an  examination 
on  any  part,  or  all,  of  the  above  branches  of  knowledge 
before  licensure,  if  they  deem  it  expedient." 

So  rapid  was  their  growth,  that  three  years  after,  in 
1813,  they  became  three  presbyteries,  and  constituted  a 
synod.  At  the  sessions  of  the  synod  in  1828,  three  new 
synods  were  erected,  and  measures  were  taken  for  the  or- 
ganization of  a  general  assembly.  The  first  meeting  of 
the  General  Assembly  occurred  at  Princeton,  Ky.,  in 
1829. 

The  doctrines  of  this  church  are  a  modification  of  the 
Westminster  Confession.  The  chief  point  of  differenceua 
their  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  election,  as  in  their  view 
tending  to  fatality.  They  are  strictly  Presbyterian  in 
government  and  order. 

No  church,  perhaps,  has  increased  more  rapidly  than 
has  this  young  and  vigorous  denomination.  Its  doctrines 
seem  to  have  been  popular  not  only  with  the  masses,  but 
with  those  of  high  culture  and  refinement.  Although  a 
classical  course  of  instruction  is  not  made  a  sine  qua  non 
to  entering  the  sacred  profession,  yet  no  ecclesiastical 
organization,  it  is  believed,  more  strongly  favors  a  highly 
educated  ministry.  As  confirmation  of  this,  the  church, 
though  in  its  infancy,  not  only  stands  abreast  with  the 
older  and  more  powerful  denominations  in  the  institutions 


CUMBERLAND     PRESBYTERIANS.  141 

of  learning  established  for  the  education  of  both  sexes, 
but  it  now  embraces  in  its  ministry  many  of  the  fine 
scholars  and  vigorous  thinkers  of  the  age.  Nor  is  this 
denomination  behind  others  in  its  periodical  literature,  as 
its  highly  respectable  weeklies,  monthlies,  and  quarter- 
lies will  testify. 

A  prominent  trait  in  this  body  of  Christians  is  its  con- 
servatism.  The  great  civil  \var  between  the  North  and  the 
South — a  conflict  which  deluged  the  United  States  with 
blood,  and  which  rent  in  twain  the  leading  denominations 
not  before  severed — was  not  sufficient,  it  seems,  to  divide 
the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church !  This  denomina- 
tion has  never  prostituted  to  political  ends  either  the 
pulpit  or  the  religious  press.  With  it  the  church  has 
ever  been  considered  an  asylum  for  the  heart,  and  not  an 
arena  for  fierce,  bitter  controversies  in  reference  to  the 
kingdom  of  Caesar. 

The  General  Assembly  has  under  its  superintendence 
24  synods,  100  presbyteries,  1400  congregations,  1250  min- 
isters, 250  licentiates,  300  candidates  for  the  ministry,  and 
over  125,000  communicants.  The  number  of  communi- 
cants in  some  estimates  has  been  placed  considerably 
higher  than  this.  The  lowest  has  here  been  stated.' 
Reckoning  four  children,  and  other  adherents,  to  each 
communicant,  which  it  will  be  acknowledged  is  a  ve*v 
low  estimate,  there  will  be  found  500,000  persons  con- 
uected  with  this  branch  of  the  Redeemer's  kingdom. 


142  MORAVIANS. 


MORAVIANS. 

THE  Unitas  Fratrum,  or  Church  of  the  Bohemian  and 
Moravian  Brethren,  was  founded  by  followers  of  John 
Huss  in  the  year  1457,  sixty  years  before  the  Reformation. 
It  rapidly  grew  and  spread.  In  1621,  Ferdinand  of  Tyrol 
issued  an  edict  for  the  suppression  of  the  Church.  The 
Bibles  were  burned  and  the  Brethren  exiled,  and  for  a  while 
the  Unitas  Fratrum  seemed  to  be  extinct.  But  a  "  hidden 
seed"  remained.  Among  the  mountains  of  Bohemia 
there  dwelt  a  few  devoted  men  who  kept  alive  the  faith 
of  the  fathers,  and  in  Poland  there  survived  a  couple  of 
the  bishops  of  the  Church.  In  1722  some  of  the  Mora- 
vians from  Bohemia  found  an  asylum  upon  the  estates 
of  Nicholas  Lewis-,  Count  de  Zinzendorf.  Here  they 
founded  a  town  and  called  it  Herrnhut.  Through  the 
Polish  bishops  the  episcopal  succession  of  the  ancient 
Brethren  was  transmitted  to  the  church  at  Herrnhut  and 
the  ancient  discipline  revived.  Moved  by  a  great  spirit- 
ual awakening,  the  exiles,  whose  numbers  were  swelled 
by  devout  men  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  approached  the 
work  of  Foreign  Missions.  In  1732  the  first  mission- 
aries went  to  the  West  Indies  and  the  year  following  to 
Greenland.  As  the  pioneers  in  the  work  of  Protestant 
missions  the  Brethren  are  chiefly  known  in  later  times. 
The  Church  has  missions  in  Greenland,  Labrador,  the 
West  Indies,  Central  America,  Surinam,  Africa,  Australia, 
Thibet,  Palestine  and  among  the  North  American  Indians. 

The  Church  is  divided  into  four  provinces  (two  Ameri- 
can, and  a  British  and  a  Continental).  The  government 
of  the  province  is  administered  by  Synods,  which  meet 
triennially,  and  the  affairs  of  the  Church  at  large  are 
administered  by  a  General  Synod,  which  convenes  in 


MORAVIANS.  143 

Europe  every  ten  years.  The  will  of  the  Synods  is  exe- 
cuted by  the  Boards  elected  for  that  purpose. 

The  orders  in  the  ministry  are  bishops  (of  the  so-called 
Apostolical  Succession),  presbyters  and  deacons. 

The  doctrinal  position  of  the  Church  is  strictly  evan- 
gelical. The  ritual  of  the  Church  is  simple.  Litanies 
are  used  in  connection  with  the  various  services,  though 
their  use  is  not  binding  upon  the  officiating  clergyman. 
Music  holds  a  prominent  place  in  connection  with  wor- 
ship. The  festivals,  as  Epiphany,  Christmas  and  Easter, 
are  observed.  "  Lovefeasts,"  consisting  of  a  meal  of  light 
cakes  with  tea  and  coffee,  are  partaken  of  in  imitation  of 
the  apostolical  "  Agapse."  The  Moravians  do  not  hold 
to  a  community  of  goods. 

•  In  the  year  1736  the  first  colony  of  Moravians  came 
to  Georgia  in  company  with  John  Wesley.  The  first 
permanent  settlement  was  made  in  1742  at  Bethlehem, 
Pennsylvania.  In  1749  an  Act  was  passed  by  Parlia- 
ment recognizing  the  Moravian  Church  as  "An  ancient, 
evangelical,  episcopal  Church,"  and  encouraging  the  emi- 
gration of  its  members  to  America.  A  large  colony  pro- 
ceeded to  Salem,  N.  C.  The  membership  in  the  United 
States  is  at  present  about  14,000.  There  are  63  congre- 
gations and  about  100  clergymen  in  service,  including  3 
bishops.  The  home  membership  throughout  the  world 
is  about  25,000 ;  the  membership  in  the  mission-field  is 
70,000.  The  Church  has  large  schools  for  the  educa- 
tion of  females  at  Bethlehem  and  Lititz,  Pa.,  at  Salem, 
N.  C.,  and  at  Hope,  Ind.  The  seminary  at  Bethlehem 
has  educated  over  5000  young  ladies.  The  publica- 
tions of  the  American  Province  are  the  "  Moravian,"  the 
"  Brueder  Botschafter"  (German),  "  The  Little  Mission- 
ary" and  the  "Text-Book." 


144  FREE-WILL     BAPTISTS. 

FREE-WILL  BAPTISTS. 

THE  founder  of  this  denomination  was  the  Rev.  Benja- 
min Kandall.  He  was  originally  a  preacher  connected 
With  the  Calvinistic  Baptists.  Having  embraced  Arminian 
views,  and  being  disowned  by  his  brethren  as  unsound  in 
the  faith,  he  organized  a  church  in  New  Durham,  N.  H., 
on  the  30th  day  of  June,  1780.  Soon  after  this,  other 
churches  were  formed  on  the  same  plan ;  and  these 
churches  united  together,  and  constituted  the  New  Durham 
Quarterly  Meeting. 

They  were  first  called  Free  Wlllers,  by  way  of  reproach. 
Subsequently  they  assumed  the  name  as  one  by  which 
they  are  willing  to  be  designated.  They  are  nearly  allied 
to  the  English  General  Baptists. 

They  have  three  missionaries  in  India;  also  a  home 
mission  society,  a  Sunday-school  union,  and  an  education 
society  for  training  men  for  the  sacred  office. 

Their  ecclesiastical  government  is  a  mixture  of  Congre- 
gationalism and  Presbyterianism.  The  discipline  of  private 
members  belongs  to  the  churches  with  which  they  are  con- 
nected. They  have  quarterly  meetings,  consisting  of 
ministers  and  lay  delegates.  To  these  bodies  ministers  are 
amenable.  The  quarterly  meeting  possesses  very  much 
the  character  of  a  presbytery.  Several  quarterly  meetings, 
united  in  an  annual  council,  make  what  they  term  a  yearly 
meeting.  All  the  annual  meetings  are  convened  together 
triennially  as  a  general  conference. 

The  denomination  has  been  divided  by  the  question  of 
slavery,  the  greater  portion  of  the  church  having  withdrawn 
from  about  four  thousand  communicants  in  South  Carolina, 
on  account  of  their  being  slaveholders.  For  the  same 
reason  they  declined  receiving  into  their  connection  some 
twelve  thousand  from  Kentucky,  who  sent  a  delegation  to 


•*• 

«»    . 


(7 


It 


•^to'1 


DISCIPLES     OF     CHRIST.  145 

the  general  conference  to  solicit  a  union.  They  hold  what 
is  commonly  understood  by  Armenian  doctrines,  denying 
the  doctrine  of  personal  election  and  the  inadmissibleness 
of  grace.  They  have  a  book  concern  and  printing  estab- 
lishment at  Dover,  N.  H.  Its  trustees  are  appointed  by 
the  general  conference. 

If  we  reckon  in  the  statistics  of  the  denomination  those 
who  have  been  disowned  on  account  of  their  connection 
with  slavery,  we  shall  find  that  they  had,  according  to  the 
Baptist  Register  of  1846,  115  quarterly  meetings,  com- 
prised in  25  yearly  meetings,  1249  churches,  1076  minis- 
ters, and  55,323  communicants.  They  have  now  133 
associations,  1720  churches,  965  ordained  ministers,  158 
licentiates,  and  56,026  communicants. 


DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST. 

THE  Church  established  by  Christ  and  his  Apostles 
was  a  unit,  and  was  designed  to  remain  so  through  all 
time.  It  had  the  one  sure  "foundation,"  and  the  one 
Divine  rule  for  building  thereon.  The  gospel  was 
preached  to  the  people ;  they  heard  it,  believed  it,  and 
obeyed  it.  These  obedient  ones  were  instructed  to 
"keep  the  unity  of  the  Spirit  in  the  bond  of  peace,"  to 
"  continue  steadfastly  in  the  Apostles'  doctrine  and  fel- 
lowship, and  in  breaking  of  bread  and  of  prayers." 

]STow,  it  is  evident  that  there  have  been  many  innova- 
tions upon  and  departures  from  the  teaching  and  practice 
of  the  primitive  Church  as  laid  down  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment Scriptures.  Divisions,  strifes,  and  speculations 
exist;  and  while  these  exist,  the  world  cannot  be  con- 
is  K 


146  DISCIPLES     OF     CHRIST. 

verted  to  Christianity.  The  aim  of  the  Disciples  of 
Christ  is  to  restore  the  taith  and  practice  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Church,  to  unite  all  of  God's  people  on  the  "  one 
foundation/'  and  to  have  the  gospel  preached  among  all 
nations. 

As  individuals,  this  people  wear  the  name  of  "  Disci- 
ples of  Christ,"  or  "Christians."  In  their  organized 
capacity  they  are  known  as  "The  Church  of  Christ," 
"Church  of  God,"  or  simply  "The  Christian  Church," 
believing  that  these  names  are  authorized  by  the  Word 
of  God,  and  were,  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  applied  to  the 
Church  in  the  days  of  the  Apostles. 

Scarcely  fifty  years  have  transpired  since  the  reformatory 
movement  began,  yet  it  has  attained  large  proportions 
already,  and  is  rapidly  extending  its  influence.  Churches 
of  this  faith  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  in  England,  Ireland,  Scot- 
land, Australia,  and  Jamaica.  They  number  fully 
600,000  communicants.  They  have  3000  preachers  in 
the  field,  many  of  whom  are  distinguished  for  their  talent 
and  scholarship.  They  publish  30  periodicals :  9  of 
these  are  weeklies,  1  quarterly,  and  the  rest  monthlies. 
1  is  published  in  Canada,  2  in  England,  1  in  Australia, 
and  the  rest  in  the  United  States. 

The  Disciples  are  distinguished  for  their  interest  in 
education.  Their  oldest  literary  institution  is  Bethany 
College,  founded  by  Alexander  Campbell,  who  for  many 
years  presided  over  it.  Kentucky  University,  at  Lex- 
ington, Kentucky,  has  800  students  in  attendance.  The 
university  at  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  is  in  a  flourishing 
condition.  Besides  these,  they  have  12  or  15  colleges  and 
a  large  number  of  academies  and  seminaries  under  their 
control.  They  have  taken  steps  to  found  a  college  in  Aus- 
tral ui  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  Church  in  that  locality. 


DISCIPLES    OF    CHRIST.  147 

They  are  a  missionary  people.  They  have  a  general 
missionary  society,  directed  by  a  "  Board  of  Managers," 
through  which  the  offerings  of  the  brotherhood  are  applied 
for  the  extension  and  upbuilding  of  the  Church.  They 
have  also  State  and  local  organizations  of  a  missionary 
character,  which  co-operate  with  the  General  Society. 

The  following  statement,  taken  from  the  writings  of 
Mr.  Campbell  and  others,  is  a  very  explicit  declaration 
of  the  object  and  principles  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ : 

"  The  constitutional  principle  of  this  Christian  associa- 
tion and  its  object  are  clearly  expressed  in  the  following 
resolution  :  —  'That  this  society,  formed  for  the  sole  pur- 
pose of  promoting  simple  evangelical  Christianity,  shall, 
to  the  utmost  of  its  power,  countenance  and  support  such 
ministers,  and  such  only,  as  exhibit  a  manifest  conformity 
to  the  original  standard,  in  conversation  and  doctrine,  in 
Bcal  and  diligence;  only  such  as  reduce  to  practice  the 
simple  original  form  of  Christianity,  expressly  exhibited 
upon  the  sacred  page,  without  attempting  to  inculcate  any- 
thing of  human  authority,  of  private  opinion,  or  inventions 
of  men,  as  having  any  place  in  the  constitution,  faith,  or 
•worship  of  the  Christian  church.' 

"  But  to  contradistinguish  this  effort  from  some  others 
almost  contemporaneous  with  it,  we  would  emphatically 
remark,  that,  whilst  the  remonstrants  warred  against 
human  creeds,  evidently  because  those  creeds  warred 
against  their  own  private  opinions  and  favorite  dogmas, 
which  they  wished  to  substitute  for  those  creeds,  —  this 
enterprise,  so  far  as  it  was  hostile  to  those  creeds,  warred 
against  them,  not  because  of  their  hostility  to  any  private 
or  favorite  opinions  which  were  desired  to  be  substituted 
for  them  ;  but  because  those  human  institutions  supplanted 
the  Bible,  made  the  Word  of  God  of  non-effect,  were  fatal 


148  DISCIPLES     OF     CHRIST. 

to  the  intelligence,  union,  purity,  holiness,  and  happiness 
of  the  disciples  of  Christ,  and  hostile  to  the  salvation  of 
the  world.  We  had  not  at  first,  and  we  have  not  now,  a 
favorite  opinion  or  speculation,  which  we  would  offer  as  a 
substitute  for  any  human  creed  or  constitution  in  Chris- 
tendom. 

"•With  various  success,  and  with  many  of  the  opinions 
of  the  various  sects  imperceptibly  carried  with  them  from 
the  denominations  to  which  they  once  belonged,  did  the 
advocates  of  the  Bible  cause  plead  for  the  union  of  Chris- 
tians of  every  name  on  the  broad  basis  of  the  apostles' 
teaching.  But  it  was  not  until  the  year  1823,  that  a 
restoration  of  the  original  gospel  and  order  of  things  began 
to  be  advocated  in  a  periodical,  edited  by  Alexander 
Campbell,  of  Bethany,  Virginia,  entitled  '  The  Christian 
Baptist.' 

"  He  and  his  father,  Thomas  Campbell,  renounced  the 
Presbyterian  system,  and  were  immersed  in  the  year  1812, 
They  and  the  congregation  which  they  had  formed,  united 
with  the  Redstone  Baptist  Association  ;  protesting  against 
all  human  creeds  as  bonds  of  union,  and  professing  subjec- 
tion to  the  Bible  alone.  But  in  pressing  upon  the  atten- 
tion of  that  society  and  the  public  the  all-sufficiency  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  for  everything  necessary  to  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  Christian  character,  whether  in  the  private  or 
social  relations  of  life,  in  the  church  or  in  the  world,  they 
began  to  be  opposed  by  a  strong  creed-party  in  that  asso- 
ciation. After  some  ten  years'  debating  and  contending 
for  the  Bible  alone,  and  the  apostles'  doctrine,  Alexander 
Campbell,  and  the  church  to  which  he  belonged,  united 
with  the  Mahoning  Association  of  Ohio — that  association 
being  more  favorable  to  his  views  of  reform. 

"  In  his  debates  on  the  subject  and  action  of  baptism 
with  Mr.  Walker,  a  seceding  minister,  in  the  year  1820, 


DISCIPLES     OF     CHRIST.  149 

and  with  Mr.  M'Calla,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  in  1823, 
his  views  of  reformation  began  to  be  developed,  and  were 
very  generally  received  by  the  Baptist  society,  as  far  as 
these  works  were  read. 

"But  in  his  '  Christian  Baptist,'  which  began  July  4, 
1823,  his  views  of  the  need  of  reformation  were  more 
fully  exposed ;  and  as  these  gained  ground  by  the  pleading 
of  various  ministers  of  the  Baptist  denomination,  a  party 
in  opposition  began  to  exert  itself,  and  to  oppose  the 
spread  of  what  they  were  pleased  to  call  heterodoxy. 
But  not  till  after  great  numbers  began  to  act  upon  these 
principles,  was  there  any  attempt  towards  separation. 
After  the  Mahoning  Association  appointed  Walter  Scott 
an  evangelist,  in  1827,  and  when  great  numbers  began  to 
be  immersed  into  Christ  under  his  labors,  and  new  churches 
began  to  be  erected  by  him  and  other  laborers  in  the  field, 
did  the  Baptist  associations  begin  to  declare  non-fellowship 
with  the  brethren  of  the  Reformation.  Thus  by  constraint, 
not  of  choice,  they  were  obliged  to  form  societies  out  of 
those  communities  that  split  upon  the  ground  of  adherence 
to  the  Apostles'  doctrine.  The  distinguishing  character- 
istics of  their  views  and  practices  are  the  following  :  — 

"  They  regard  all  the  sects  and  parties  of  the  Christian 
world  as  having,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  departed  from 
the  simplicity  of  faith  and  manners  of  the  first  Christians. 
This  defection  they  attribute  to  the  great  varieties  of  spe- 
culation and  metaphysical  dogmatism  of  the  countless 
creeds,  formularies,  liturgies,  and  books  of  discipline 
adopted  and  inculcated  as  bonds  of  union  and  platforms 
of  communion  in  all  the  parties  which  have  sprung  from 
the  Lutheran  Reformation.  The  effects  of  these  synodical 
covenants,  conventional  articles  of  belief,  and  rules  of 
ecclesiastical  polity,  has  been  the  introduction  of  a  new 

nomenclature,  a   human   vocabulary  of   religious  words, 
is  » 


150  DISCIPLES     OF     CHRIST. 

phrases,  and  technicalities,  which  has  displaced  the  style 
of  the  living  oracles,  and  affixed  to  the  sacred  diction 
ideas  wnolly  unknown  to  the  apostles  of  Christ. 

"  To  remedy  and  obviate  these  aberrations,  they  propose 
to  ascertain  from  the  Holy  Scriptures,  according  to  the 
commonly  received  and  well  established  rules  of  interpre- 
tation, the  ideas  attached  to  the  leading  terms  and  sen- 
tences found  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  then  to  use  the 
words  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  apostolic  acceptation  of 
them. 

"By  thus  expressing  the  ideas  communicated  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  in  the  terms  and  phrases  learned  from  the 
apostles,  and  by  avoiding  the  artificial  and  technical  lan- 
guage of  scholastic  theology,  they  propose  to  restore  a 
pure  speech  to  the  household  of  faith ;  and  by  accustoming 
the  family  of  God  to  use  the  language  and  dialect  of  their 
heavenly  Father,  they  expect  to  promote  the  sanctification 
of  one  another  through  the  truth,  and  to  terminate  those 
discords  and  debates  which  have  always  originated  from 
the  words  which  man's  wisdom  teaches,  and  from  a  reve- 
rential regard  and  esteem  for  the  style  of  the  great  mas- 
ters of  polemic  divinity ;  believing  that  speaking  the  same 
things  in  the  same  style  is  the  only  certain  way  to  thinking 
the  same  things. 

"  They  make  a  very  marked  distinction  between  faith 
and  opinion ;  between  the  testimony  of  God  and  the  rea- 
sonings of  men  :  the  words  of  the  Spirit  and  human  infer- 
ences. Faith  "in  the  testimony  of  God  and  obedience  to 
the  commandments  of  Jesus  are  their  bond  of  union ;  auU 
not  an  agreement  in  any  abstract  views  or  opinions  upon 
what  is  written  or  spoken  by  divine  authority.  Regarding 
all  the  opposing  theories  of  religious  sectaries  as  extremes 
begotten  by  each  other,  they  cautiously  avoid  them,  as 
equidistant  from  the  simplicity  and  practical  tendency  of 


DISCIPLES     OF     CHRIST.  151 

me  promises  and  precepts,  of  the  doctrine  and  facts,  of 
the  exhortations  and  precedents  of  the  Christian  institu- 
tion. They  look  for  unity  of  spirit  and  the  bonds  of 
peace  in  the  practical  acknowledgement  of  *  one  faith,  one 
Lord,  one  immersion,  one  hope,  one  body,  one  Spirit,  one 
God  and  Father  of  all ;'  not  in  unity  of  opinions,  nor  in 
unity  of  forms,  ceremonies,  or  modes  of  worship. 

"  The  Holy  Scriptures  of  both  Testaments  they  regard 
as  containing  revelations  from  God,  and  as  all  necessary 
to  make  the  man  of  God  perfect,  and  accomplished  for 
every  good  word  and  work :  the  New  Testament,  or  the 
living  oracles  of  Jesus  Christ,  they  understand  as  contain- 
ing the  Christian  religion ;  testimonies  of  the  four  evan- 
gelists they  view  as  illustrating  and  proving  the  great  pro- 
position on  which  our  religion  rests,  namely,  —  that  Jesus 
of  Nazareth  is  the  Messiah,  the  only  begotten  and  well- 
beloved  Son  of  God,  and  the  only  Saviour  of  the  world ; 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  as  a  divinely  authorized  narra- 
tive of  the  beginning  and  progress  of  the  reign  or  king- 
dom of  Jesus  Christ,  recording  the  full  development  of 
*the  gospel'  by  the  Holy  Spirit  sent  down  from  heaven, 
and  the  procedure  of  the  apostles  in  setting  up  the  Church 
of  Christ  on  earth ;  the  Epistles  as  carrying  out  and  ap- 
plying the  doctrine  of  the  apostles  to  the  practice  of  in- 
dividuals and  churches,  and  as  developing  the  tendencies 
of  the  gospel  in  the  behavior  of  its  professors,  and  all  as 
forming  a  complete  standard  of  faith  and  morals,  adapted 
to  the  interval  between  the  ascension  of  Christ,  and  his 
return  with  the  kingdom  which  he  has  received  from  God. 

"  Every  one  who  sincerely  believes  the  testimony  which 
God  gave  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  saying,  '  This  is  my  Son, 
the  beloved,  in  whom  I  delight,'  or,  in  other  words,  believes 
what  the  evangelists  and  apostles  have  testified  concerning 
him,  from  his  conception  to  his  coronation  in  heaven,  as 


152  DISCIPLES     OF     CHRIST. 

Lord  of  all,  and  who  is  willing  to  obey  him  in  everything, 
they  regard  as  a  proper  subject  of  immersion  into  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  no  one  else.  They  consider  Christian  baptism, 
after  a  public,  sincere,  and  intelligent  confession  of  the 
faith  in  Jesus,  as  necessary  to  admission  to  the  privileges 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  and  as  a  solemn  pledge  on 
the  part  of  heaven,  of  the  actual  remission  of  all  past 
sins,  and  of  adoption  into  the  family  of  God. 

"  The  Holy  Spirit  is  promised  only  to  those  who  believe 
and  obey  the  Saviour.  No  one  is  taught  to  expect  the 
reception  of  that  heavenly  monitor  and  Comforter  as  a 
resident  in  his  heart,  till  he  obeys  the  gospel.  Thus,  while 
they  proclaim  faith  and  repentance,  or  faith  and  a  change 
of  heart,  as  preparatory  to  immersion,  remission  of  sins, 
and  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  they  say  to  all  penitents, 
or  all  those  who  believe  and  repent  of  their  sins,  as  Peter 
said  to  the  first  audience  addressed  after  the  Holy  Spirit 
was  bestowed  after  the  glorification  of  Jesus,  'Be  immersed, 
every  one  of  you,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  for  the 
remission  of  sins,  and  you  shall  receive  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.'  They  teach  sinners  that  God  commands  all  men 
everywhere  to  repent  or  to  turn  to  God;  that  the  Holy 
Spirit  strives  with  them  so  to  do  by  the  apostles  and  pro- 
phets ;  that  God  beseeches  them  to  be  reconciled  through 
Jesus  Christ,  and  that  it  is  the  duty  of  all  men  to  belie  ?e 
the  gospel  and  turn  to  God. 

"The  immersed  believers  are  congregated  into  societies 
according  to  their  nearness  to  each  other,  and  taught  to 
meet  every  first  day  of  the  week  in  honor  and  commemora- 
tion of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus,  and  to  attend  to  the  Lord's 
Supper,  which  commemorates  the  death  of  the  'Son  of  God, 
to  read  and  hear  the  living  oracles,  to  teach  and  admonish 
one  another,  to  unite  in  all  prayer  and  praise,  to  contribute 


DISCIPLES     OF     CHRIST.  153 

to  the  necessities  of  saints,  and  to  perfect  holiness  in  the 
fear  of  the  Lord. 

"Every  congregation  chooses  its  own  overseers  and 
deacons,  who  preside  over  and  administer  the  affairs  of  the 
congregations ;  and  every  church,  either  from  itself,  or  in 
co-operation  with  others,  sends  out,  as  opportunity  offers, 
one  or  more  evangelists,  or  proclaimers  of  the  word,  to 
preach  the  word  and  to  immerse  those  whohelieve,  to  gather 
congregations,  and  to  extend  the  knowledge  of  salvation  as 
far  as  their  means  extend.  But  every  church  regards  these 
evangelists  as  its  servants,  and  therefore  they  have  no 
control  over  any  congregation,  each  church  heing  subject 
to  its  own  choice  of  presidents  or  elders,  whom  they  have 
appointed.  Perseverance  in  all  the  work  of  faith,  labor 
of  love,  and  patience  of  hope,  is  inculcated  by  all  the 
Disciples,  as  essential  to  admission  into  the  heavenly 
kingdom. 

"  Such  are  the  prominent  outlines  of  the  faith  and  prao  • 
tice  of  those  who  wish  to  be  known  as  the  disciples  of  Christ ; 
but  no  society  among  them  would  agree  to  make  the  pre- 
ceding items  either  a  confession  of  faith  or  a  standard  of 
practice ;  but,  for  the  information  of  those  who  wish  an 
acquaintance  with  them,  are  willing  to  give  at  any  time  a 
reason  for  their  faith,  hope,  and  practice. 

"  On  the  design  of  baptism,  and  the  benefits  resulting 
from  this  ordinance  to  the  penitent  believer  through  the 
blood  of  Christ,  the  Disciples  have  been  greatly  minunder- 
stood.  That  the  blood  of  Jesus  is  the  only  procuring  cause 
of  the  remission  of  sins,  is  believed  by  every  Disciple. 
Baptism,  they  teach,  is  designed  to  introduce  the  subjects 
of  it  into  the  participation  of  the  blessings  of  the  death  and 
resurrection  of  Christ,  who  died  for  our  sins,  and  rose 
again  for  our  justification.  But  it  has  no  abstract  efficacy. 
Without  previous  faith  in  the  blood  of  Christ,  and  deep  and 
unfeigned  repentance  before  God,  neither  immersion  in 


154  DISCIPLES     OF     CHRIST. 

water  nor  any  other  action  can  secure  to  us  the  blessings 
of  peace  and  pardon.  It  can  merit  nothing.  Still  to  the 
believing  penitent  it  is  the  means  of  receiving  a  formal, 
distinct,  and  specific  absolution,  or  release  from  guilt. 
Therefore  none  but  those  who  have  first  believed  in  Christ 
and  repented  of  their  sins,  and  that  have  been  intelligently 
immersed  into  his  death,  have  the  full  and  explicit  testi- 
mony of  God,  assuring  them  of  pardon.  In  reference  to 
^generation  the  Disciples  teach  that  an  individual  who  is 
-jfst  begotten  of  God,  whose  heart  is  imbued  with  tho  word 
of  God,  is  enabled  to  enjoy  the  life  thus  bestowed  when 
immersed  into  Christ,  as  it  gives  him  an  introduction  to 
the  happiness  and  society  of  the  pardoned  and  the  spiritual. 
Baptism,  succeeding  faith  and  repentance,  consummates 
regeneration.  The  new  birth  as  a  change  of  state,  is  a 
formal  ingress  of  a  penitent  believer,  a  prior  spiritual  crea- 
tion, into  the  family  and  kingdom  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
Formed  for  a  new  state  by  faith  and  repentance,  he  enjoys 
its  heavenly  adaptations  the  moment  he  enters  the  king- 
dom by  being  baptized  in  the  name  of  Christ.  The  waters 
of  baptism  in  connection  with  the  death  of  Jesus,  afford 
him  as  great  an  assurance  of  safety,  as  did  their  type,  the 
waters  of  the  Bed  Sea,  to  the  redeemed  Israelites,  when 
they  engulphed  Pharaoh  and  his  hosts.  Thus  are  we  taught 
that  penitent  believers  are  born  the  children  of  God  by 
baptism  —  that  salvation  is  connected  with  baptism  when 
accompanied  by  faith  —  that  remission  of  sins  is  to  be  en- 
joyed by  baptism  through  the  blood  of  Christ  —  that  per- 
sons, having  previously  believed  and  repented,  wash  away 
their  sins  in  baptism,  calling  on  the  name  of  the  Lord  — • 
that  they  profess  to  be  dead  to  sin  and  alive  to  God  in  the 
action  of  baptism — that  believers  put  on  Christ  when  bap 
tized  into  Christ  —  that  the  church  is  cleansed  by  baptism 
and  belief  of  the  Word  of  God  —  that  men  are  saved  by 


BAPTISTS  —  MINOR     DENOMINATIONS.      155 

baptism  in  connection  with  the  renewing  of  the  Holy 
Spirit — and  that  the  answer  of  a  good  conscience  is  obtained 
in  baptism  through  the  resurrection  of  Christ. 

"As  the  Disciples  endeavor  to  call  Bible  things  by  Bible 
names,  they  have  repudiated  all  words  and  phrases  in  re- 
Bpect  to  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  not  sanctioned  by 
divine  usage.  Never -employ  ing  such  terms  as  'trinity,' 
*  eternal  generation,'  *  eternal  filiation,'  *  eternally  begot- 
ten,' *  eternal  procession,'  ' co-essential  and  consubstantial,' 
and  all  others  of  the  same  category,  they  have  sometimea 
been  denominated,  but  most  unjustly  so,  Unitarians.  They 
believe  that  Christ  is  absolutely  divine,  infinitely  above  any 
super-human  or  even  super-angelic  being.  They  believe 
Christ  to  be  '  God'  in  nature,  and  not  in  office  only,  or  be- 
cause he  is  invested  with  divine  prerogatives,  as  Moses  ia 
said  to  have  been  made  '  a  god  unto  Pharaoh,"  and  as  the 
magistrates  of  Israel  are  called  'gods,'  as  being  engaged 
in  administering  divine  laws." 


BAPTISTS— MINOR  DENOMINATIONS. 

UNDER  this  head  it  is  proposed  to  place  in  a  group 
several  denominations  of  Baptists  that  are  less  important 
than  those  before  mentioned,  because  fewer  in  their  num- 
bers. 

SEVENTH-DAY  BAPTISTS. 

"  The  terms  Sabbatarian  and  Seventh-day  Baptists  are 
used  to  designate  those  Christians  who  observe  the  seventh 
or  last  day  of  the  week  as  the  Sabbath.  The  former  term 
was  adopted  in  England  soon  after  the  Reformation,  when 
the  word  Sabbath  was  applied  exclusively  to  the  seventh 
day,  and  when  those  who  observed  that  day  were  regarded 


156        BAPTISTS  —  MINOR    DENOMINATIONS. 

as  the  only  true  Sabbath-keepers,  or  Sabbatarians.  In 
the  year  1818,  this  term  was  rejected  by  the  General  Con- 
ference in  America,  on  account  of  its  supposed  indefinite- 
ness  ;  and  the  term  Seventh-day  Baptist  was  adopted  in 
its  stead,  as  more  descriptive  of  the  opinions  and  practices 
of  the  people. 

"  The  Seventh-day  Baptists  are  distinguished  from  Bap- 
tists generally  by  the  views  which  they  entertain  of  the 
Sabbath.  In  respect  to  this,  they  believe  that  the  seventh 
day  of  the  week  was  sanctified  and  blessed  for  the  Sabbath 
in  Paradise,  and  was  designed  for  all  mankind ;  that  it 
forms  a  necessary  part  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  which 
are  immutable  in  their  nature,  and  universally  binding; 
that  no  change  as  to  the  day  of  the  Sabbath  was  made  by 
divine  authority  at  the  introduction  of  Christianity ;  that 
those  passages  in  the  New  Testament  which  speak  of  the 
first  day  of  the  week,  do  not  imply  either  the  substitution 
of  that  day  for  the  seventh  as  the  Sabbath,  or  its  appoint- 
ment as  a  day  of  religious  worship ;  that  whatever  respect 
the  early  Christians  paid  to  the  first  day  of  the  week,  on 
the  supposition  of  its  being  the  day  of  Christ's  resurrec- 
tion, yet  they  never  regarded  it  as  the  Sabbath,  but  conti- 
nued to  observe  the  seventh  day  in  that  character  until, 
by  edicts  of  emperors  and  the  decrees  of  councils,  the  first 
day  was  made  gradually  to  supersede  it. 

"  At  what  precise  time  the  observers  of  the  seventh  day 
took  a  denominational  form,  it  is  not  easy  to  say.  Ac- 
cording to  Ross's  'Picture  of  all  Religions,'  they  appeared 
in  Germany  late  in  the  fifteenth  or  early  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  According  to  Dr.  Chambers,  they  arose  in  Eng- 
land in  the  sixteenth  century.  Assuming  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century  as  the  true  period  of  their  origin, 
would  carry  them  back  as  far  as  any  of  the  modern  deno- 
minations of  Christians  date.  But  whatever  difficulty 


BAP1ISTS  —  MINOR    DENOMINATIONS.        157 

there  may  be  in  fixing  the  precise  time  of  their  origin  as  a 
denomination,  the  Seventh-day  Baptists  think  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  proving  the  antiquity  of  their  sentiments.  In- 
deed, they  believe  that  there  has  been  no  period  since  the 
commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  when  there  were  not 
upon  the  earth  more  or  less  Christians  observing  the  sev- 
enth day. 

"  They  hold,  in  common  with  other  Christians,  the  dis- 
tinguishing doctrines  of  Christianity.  There  were  lately 
two  congregations  of  the  Sabbatarians  in  London ;  one 
among  the  General  Baptists,  meeting  in  Mill  Yard,  the 
trust-deeds  of  which  date  as  far  back  as  1678,  but  which 
is  now  greatly  reduced  in  number ;  the  other  among  the 
Particular  Baptists,  in  Cripplegate.  There  are  also  a  few 
to  be  found  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

"  The  Seventh-day  Baptists  in  America  date  from  about 
the  same  period  that  their  brethren  in  England  began  to 
organize  regular  churches.  Mr.  Stephen  Mumford  was 
one  of  the  earliest  among  them.  He  came  from  England 
to  Newport,  R..  I.,  in  1665,  and  '  brought  with  him  the 
opinion,  that  the  Ten  Commandments,  as  they  were  deli- 
vered from  Mount  Sinai,  were  moral  and  immutable,  and 
;hat  it  was  an  an ti- Christian  power  which  changed  the 
Sabbath  from  the  seventh  to  the  first  day  of  the  week.' 
He  joined  the  First-day  Baptist  church  in  Newport,  and 
soon  won  several  members  of  that  church  to  his  views. 
They  continued  to  walk  with  the  church,  however,  for  a 
time,  until  a  difficulty  arose  in  consequence  of  the  hard 
things  which  were  said  of  them  by  their  brethren,  such  as, 
that  the  Ten  Commandments,  being  given  to  the  Jews, 
were  not  binding  upon  the  Gentiles,  and  that  those  who 
observed  the  seventh  day  were  gone  from  Christ  to  Moses. 
In  November,  1671,  they  came  to  an  open  separation, 
when  Stephen  Mumford,  William  Hiscox,  Samuel  Hub- 

14- 


158         BAPTISTS — MINOR    DENOMINATIONS. 

bard,  Roger  Baster,  and  three  sisters,  entered  into  church 
covenant  together,  thus  forming  the  first  Seventh-day  Bap- 
tist church  in  America.  William  Hiscox  was  chosen  and 
ordained  their  pastor,  which  office  he  filled  until  his  death, 
in  1704,  in  the  66th  year  of  his  age.  He  was  succeeded 
by  William  Gibson,  a  minister  from  London,  who  continued 
to  labor  among  them  until  he  died,  in  1717,  at  the  age  of 
79  years.  Joseph  Crandall  had  been  his  colleague  for  two 
years,  and  was  selected  to  succeed  him.  When  he  died, 
in  1737,  Joseph  Maxson  was  chosen  pastor,  and  discharged 
the  duties  of  the  office  until  1743.  He  was  followed  by 
William  Bliss,  who  served  the  church  as  pastor  until  his 
death,  in  1808,  at  the  age  of  81  years.  Henry  Burdick 
succeeded  him  in  the  pastoral  office,  and  occupied  that  post 
until  a  few  years  ago,  when  he  died.  Besides  the  regular 
pastors,  this  church  has  ordained  several  ministers,  from 
time  to  time,  who  have  labored  with  great  usefulness,  both 
at  home  and  abroad.  It  has  also  included  among  its 
members  several  distinguished  characters,  two  of  whom, 
Richard  and  Samuel  Ward,  governors  of  the  State  of 
Rhode  Island,  are  well  known  to  history. 

"•  For  more  than  thirty  years  after  its  organization,  the 
Newport  church  included  nearly  all  persons  observing  the 
seventh  day  in  the  States  of  PJiode  Island  and  Connecticut; 
and  its  pastors  were  accustomed  to  hold  stated  meetings 
at  several  distant  places,  for  the  better  accommodation  of 
the  widely-scattered  members.  But  in  1708,  the  brethren 
living  in  what  was  then  called  Westerly  R.  I.,  (compre- 
hending all  the  south-western  corner  of  the  State,)  thought 
best  to  form  another  society.  Accordingly  they  proceeded 
to  organize  the  Ilopkinton  church,  which  had  a  succession 
of  worthy  pastors,  became  very  numerous,  and  built  three 
meeting-houses  for  the  accommodation  of  the  members  in 


BAPTISTS  —  MINOR    DENOMINATIONS.         159 

the  different  neighborhoods.  At  present,  there  are  sever 
churches  in  Rhode  Island,  and  one  in  Connecticut." 

There  are  four  Seventh-day  Baptist  churches  in  New 
Jersey,  more  than  twenty  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and 
many  more  of  later  origin  scattered  over  the  South  and 
West. 

It  is  now  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  since  a  yearly 
meeting  was  established  by  this  denomination  in  our 
country.  A  general  conference  was  formed  in  1800.  The 
conference  comprises  four  associations. 

According  to  the  Baptist  Almanac  for  1860,  they  have 
70  ordained  ministers,  10  licentiates,  56  churches,  and 
6577  communicants,  and  4  associations. 

EPHRATA   SOCIETY   OF   SEVENTH-DAT   BAPTISTS. 

The  Ephrata  Society  arose-  out  of  a  division  of  the 
Dunkers,  in  about  1730.  They  observe  the  seventh  day 
as  the  Sabbath.  They  form  a  settlement  near  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  much  on  the  plan  of  the  old  Moravian  communities. 

The  Society  was  originated  by  Conrad  Beissel,  a  native 
of  Germany,  and  a  Dunker.  In  1725,  he  published  a  tract 
in  defence  of  observing  the  seventh  day  as  a  holy  time. 
This  discussion  attracted  to  his  views  several  other  Dunkers 
from  the  society  at  Mill  Creek,  Lancaster  County.  In 
1728,  they  formally  adopted  the  seventh  day  as  the  day 
for  public  worship.  In  1732,  they  established  a  monastic 
society  at  Ephrata.  They  adopted  the  habit  of  the  Ca- 
puchin friars.  The  men  wear  a  shirt,  trowsers,  and  vest, 
with  a  long  white  gown,  and  cowl.  The  dress  of  the  sisters 
is  the  same,  except  that  they  wear  petticoats  in  the  place 
of  trowsers,  and  a  cowl  of  different  shape.  In  1*740, 
there  were  in  the  cloister  thirty-six  single  brethren  and 
thirty-five  sisters.  No  monastic  vows  were  taken,  and 
a  community  of  goods  wan  maintained.  They  consider 


I 
tGO         BAPTISTS  —  MINOR    DENOMINATIONS. 

celibacy  a  virtue,  and  favorable  to  eminent  holiness,  but 
do  not  prohibit  marriage.  They  receive  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures as  the  only  rule  of  faith.  They  hold  to  the  divinity 
of  Christ,  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  salvation  by  grace 
alone,  the  baptism  of  believers  only,  which  they  administer 
by  trine  immersion,  with  the  laying  on  of  hands,  while  the 
recipient  remains  kneeling  in  the  water.  Their  numbers 
are  greatly  diminished,  and  are  now  inconsiderable. 

MENNONITES. 

Edwards,  the  Baptist  historian,  informs  us  that  "  some 
Mennonite  families  were  in  the  province  of  Pennsylvania 
as  early  as  the  year  1692,  who  came  hither  from  New 
York  government,  which  at  first  belonged  to  the  Dutch, 
and  was  called  New  Netherlands,  extending  from  the  river 
Delaware  to  the  river  of  Connecticut.  They  settled  in  the 
neighborhood  now  called  Germantown  and  Frankfort,  &c. 
Other  families  soon  followed ;  and  after  them  many  came 
directly  from  Europe,  insomuch  that  May  23,  1708,  there 
was  a  church  settled  at  Germantown,  consisting  of  52 
members,  which  exists  to  this  day,  (1770,)  and  is  not  only 
the  first  in  the  province,  but,  in  some  sort,  the  mother  of 
all  the  rest.  In  about  sixteen  years  after,  this  church  had 
branched  out  to  Skippeck,  Cones  toga,  Great  Swamp,  and 
Monatony,  and  become  five  churches,  to  which  appertained 
sixteen  ministers,  viz.:  Rev.  Messrs.  Jacob  Gottschalk, 
Henry  Kolb,  Martin  Kolb,  Cleas  Johnson,  Michael  Zeigler, 
John  Gorgas,  John  Conerads,  Cleas  Rittinghausen,  Hans 
Burghaltzer,  Christian  Heer,  Benedict  Hirchy,  Martin 
Beer,  Johannes  Bowman,  Velter  Clemer,  Daniel  Langan- 
eckor,  and  Jacob  Beghtly.  The  present  (1770)  state  of 
the  Mennonites  in  this  province  is  as  follows :  1st,  their 
churches,  which  contain  many  branches,  are  13 ;  2d,  the 
meeting-houses  belonging  to  them  are  42 ;  3d,  their  or- 


BAPTISTS  —  MINOR    DENOMINATIONS.         161 

dalned  ministers  or  bishops  are  15 ;  4th,  their  probationary 
or  licensed  preachers  are  53 ;  5th,  the  families  are  about 
810,  which,  allowing  five  to  a  family,  contain  4050  souls ; 
whereof  1448  persons  are  baptized  and  members  of  their 
churches.  This  account,  I  believe,  is  pretty  exact,  except 
the  county  of  Lancaster  hath  introduced  any  error  into  it; 
for  in  that  county  I  have  not  met  with  as  much  readiness 
to  give  me  the  information  I  sought  as  in  the  other  coun- 
ties, owing,  I  believe,  to  a  suspicion  that  a  knowledge  of 
their  state  would,  some  way  or  other,  be  to  their  prejudice. 

"  The  Mennonites,  in  common  with  other  communities, 
spread  abroad  in  different  directions.  They  formed  settle- 
ments, and  now  have  congregations  and  churches  in  Vir- 
ginia, Ohio,  and  Western  New  York,  and  the  Canadas ; 
but  they  are  the  most  numerous  in  the  State  where  they 
first  planted  their  standard  on  the  American  soil.  This 
remark  holds  true  of  both  the  old  and  new  connection. 

"  The  new  connection  of  Mennonites  was  formed  by  a 
seceding  party  from  the  old  body,  in  1811.  Connected 
with  it  are  about  700  members  in  Pennsylvania,  from  150 
to  200  in  New  York,  about  200  in  Upper  Canada,  and 
small  detachments  of  them  are  found  in  Maryland,  Ohio, 
Indiana,  &c.  The  cause  of  the  separation  was  purely  on 
the  principles  of  experimental  religion,  which  the  new 
interest  sought  to  inculcate  and  maintain,  in  the  spirit  as 
well  as  the  letter,  according  to  the  pattern  set  them  by 
Menno  Simon  and  his  associates.  They  complain  that  the 
old  body  'have  deviated  from  time  to  time  and  fallen 
away,  particularly  in  the  spiritual  part  of  religion  —  have 
become  lukewarm  and  carnally-minded,  seeking  transitory 
things  more  than  spiritual,  holding  more  to  the  letter  and 
outward  form,  than  to  the  spirit  and  real  substance  of 
religion.' 

**  The  Mennonites  in  the  old  world,  for  ages  past,  hav« 

14* 


162        BAPTISTS — MINOR    DENOMINATIONS. 

as  a  general  thing,  administered  Laptism  by  pouring  and 
laying  on  of  hands ;  and  the  same  is  true  of  them  in  this 
country,  both  of  the  old  and  new  connection ;  they  are, 
however,  the  decided  opponents  of  infant  baptism  in  all 
its  forms."  The  Mennonites  have  now  300  churches,  250 
ministers,  and  36,280  communicants,  as  reported  ID  the 
Baptist  Almanac  for  1860. 

TUNKERS  OR  DUNKERS. 

"  The  first  appearing  of  these  people  in  America  was  in 
the  fall  of  the  year  1719,  when  about  twenty  fa'niliea 
landed  in  Philadelphia,  and  dispersed  themselves,  seme  to 
Germantown,  some  to  Skippeck,  some  to  Oley,  some  to 
Conestoga,  and  elsewhere.  This  dispersion  incapacitated 
them  to  meet  for  public  worship,  and  therefore  they  began 
to  grow  lukewarm  in  religion.  But  in  the  year  1722, 
Messrs.  Baker,  Gomery,  Gantz,  and  the  Trautes,  visited 
their  scattered  brethren,  which  was  attended  with  a  great 
revival,  insomuch  that  societies  were  formed  wherever  a 
number  of  families  were  within  reach  one  of  another.  But 
this  lasted  not  above  three  years.  They  settled  on  their 
lees  again,  till  about  thirty  families  more  of  their  perse- 
cuted brethren  arrived  in  the  fall  of  the  year  1729,  which 
both  quickened  them  again  and  increased  their  number 
everywhere.  These  two  companies  had  been  members  of 
one  and  the  same  church,  which  originated  at  Schwardze- 
nau,  in  the  year  1708.  The  first  constituents  were  Alex 
ander  Mack  and  wife,  John  Kipin  and  wife,  George  Grevy, 
Andreas  Bloney,  Lucas  Fetter,  and  Joanna  Nethigeim, 
These  had  been  bred  Presbyterians,  except  Kipin,  who  was 
a  Lutheran ;  and  being  neighbors,  they  consorted  together 
to  read  the  Bible,  and  edify  one  another  in  the  way  they 
had  been  brought  up,  for  as  yet  they  did  not  know  there 
were  any  Baptists  in  the  world.  However,  belie vera'  bap- 


BAPTISTS  —  MINOR    DENOMINATIONS.         163 

tism  and  a  congregational  church  soon  gained  upon  them, 
insomuch  that  they  had  determined  to  obey  the  gospel  in 
these  matters.  They  desired  Alexander  Mack  to  baptize 
them ;  but  he,  deeming  himself  in  reality  unbaptized,  re- 
fused ;  upon  which  they  cast  lots  to  find  who  should  be 
administrator.  On  whom  the  lot  fell  hath  been  carefully 
concealed.  However,  baptized  they  were  in  the  river 
Eder,  by  Schwardzenau,  and  then  formed  themselves  into 
a  church,  choosing  Alexander  Mack  to  be  their  minister. 
They  increased  fast,  and  began  to  spread  their  branches  to 
Merienborn  and  Epstein,  having  John  Naass  and  Christian 
Levy  to  their  ministers  in  those  places.  But  persecution 
quickly  drove  them  thence,  some  to  Holland  and  some  to 
Creyfelt.  Soon  after,  the  mother  church  voluntarily  re- 
moved from  Schwardzenau  to  Serustervin,  in  Friezland, 
and  from  thence  migrated  towards  America,  in  1719;  and 
in  1729,  those  of  Creyfelt  and  Holland  followed  their 
brethren. 

"  Thus  we  see  that  all  the  Tunker  churches  in  America 
sprang  from  the  church  at  Schwardzenau,  in  Germany ; 
that  that  church  began  in  1708,  with  only  seven  souls,  arid 
that  in  a  place  where  no  Baptist  had  been  in  the  memory 
of  man,  nor  any  now  are.  In  sixty-two  years  that  little 
one  became  a  thousand,  and  that  small  one  a  great  nation" 

One  of  their  body,  in  a  letter  to  Benedict,  says  of  their 
doctrinal  views,  that  "  they  have  been  charged  with  hold- 
ing the  sentiments  of  the  Universalists,  which  they  all 
deny,  and  often  testify  against  them." 

"  This  statement,  I  suppose,  refers  to  the  no-future-pun- 
ishment system,  as  he  admits  that  by  some  of  this  commu- 
nity '  the  writings  and  reasonings  of  Elhanan  Winchester 
have  been  well  received.'  He  also  mentions  a  schism  in 
this  body  in  1790,  when  a  party  of  decided  Universalists 
drew  off  under  the  ministry  of  one  John  Ham,  a  man  of 


161        BAPTISTS  —  MINOR    DENOMINATIONS. 

gn  at  talents  and  popular  address.  Some  of  his  followers 
afterward  moved  into  the  Green  River  country,  Ky.,  and 
caused  great  confusion  among  the  brotherhood  there  as 
well  as  in  North  Carolina,  where  Ham  himself  lived  at  the 
time  of  the  division.  '  Those  who  have  imbibed  his  opi- 
nions are  thought  to  be  in  union  and  fellowship  with  the 
German  Baptist  Brethren,  which  has  not  been  the  case 
since  the  Yearly  Meeting  which  was  held  in  Franklin 
County,  Virginia,  fifty  years  ago,  or  upwards.' 

"  This  class  of  Tunkers,  at  present,  reside  in  Kentucky, 
in  the  southern  part  of  Illinois,  in  Missouri,  and  Iowa. 

"  Summary  statement  of  the  Tunkers :  Congregations 
and  churches,  500 ;  ministers  of  all  grades,  about  2000 ; 
communicants,  100,000. 

CHRISTIANS. 

This  denomination  call  themselves  Christians ;  but  aa 
the  name  does  not  distinguish  them  from  other  Christians, 
and  as  the  public  must  have  a  distinguishing  appellation, 
the  first  part  of  the  name  is  commonly  pronounced  as  we 
pronounce  the  word  Christ,  when  written  by  itself.  Hence 
they  are  commonly  called  Christ-ians.  One  of  their  own 
writers  gives  the  following  account  of  their  origin : 

"About  fifty  years  ago,  several  Methodist  preachers  in 
he  State  of  Virginia  and  in  the  Carolinas,  became  dissa 
tisfied  with  the  discipline  of  that  church,  and  withdrew. 
They  then  agreed  to  search  the  Scriptures  for  a  rule  of 
life,  and  to  believe,  preach,  and  walk  as  they  should  direct. 
The  result  was,  they  soon  became  agreed  that  Christian 
jras  the  appropriate  name  for  all  the  followers  of  Christ, 
i«*i  all  true  believers  hold ;  and  that  while  others  go  far- 
ther, and  take  some  sectarian  name  of  human  origin,  they 
ought  not,  and  would  not.  receive  or  use  among  themselves 
*«ny  other  By  thus  searching  the  Scriptures  for  a  rule, 


BAPTISTS  —  MINOK    DENOMINATIONS. 

they  became  satisfied  that  as  that  book  contained  the  whole 
of  the  rule  of  duty  and  faith,  so  no  other  was  necessary  ; 
and  all  others,  if  authoritative,  served  to  divide  and  lead 
astray.  Here  they  settled  down  upon  the  broad  plan  of 
the  name  all  believers  take — Christian ;  and  the  rule  they 
all  acknowledge — the  Bible. 

"A  few  years  after  this,  several  ministers  of  the  Pres- 
byterian order,  in  the  State  of  Kentucky,  broke  off  frorr- 
that  body  because  of  the  government  under  which  it  acted  ; 
and  several  of  their  usages  appeared  to  them  both  unscrip- 
tural  and  oppressive.  This  act  threw  them  upon  the  Bible, 
as  the  like  act  had  thrown  the  seceders  from  the  Metho- 
dists in  Virginia ;  and  with  the  same  result — for  they  soon 
agreed  to  be  nothing  but  Christians,  and  to  have  no  dis- 
cipline or  rule  but  the  Bible. 

"About  the  same  time,  a  few  ministers  in  New  England, 
who  had  been  connected  with  the  Baptists,  were  led  to  see 
that  human  creeds  were  both  useless  and  hurtful,  and,  in 
relinquishing  these,  they  too  were  thrown  upon  the  Bible 
alone.  As  they  found  there  none  of  their  names  but 
Christian,  and  none  of  the  modern  denominational  titles, 
they  also  soon  agreed  on  that  name,  and  on  the  Bible  aa 
their  only  rule  of  faith  and  practice. 

"  Here,  then,  were  three  companies  in  the  United  States, 
all  agreeing  in  these  two  points.  But  they  were  strangers 
to  each  other,  and  even  to  the  fact  that  such  companies 
existed.  But  in  a  few  years  each  learned  that  others  ex- 
isted, and  by  means  of  letters,  and  a  periodical  which  waa 
Boon  commenced  among  the  New  England  Christians,  a 
correspondence  was  opened,  and  a  union  created,  so  that 
the  three  became  one,  and  have  to  this  day  been  known 
as  the  *  Christian  Connection  in  the  United  States  of 
America.' 


166        BAPTISTS  —  MINOR    DENOMINATIONS. 

"  They  are  Unitarians  in  doctrine,  and  Baptists  both  in 
respect  to  the  mode  and  the  subjects  of  baptism. 

"  The  education  of  many  of  the  ministers  of  the  con- 
nection, who  universally  preach  extempore,  is  defective- 
Their  maxim  has  been,  'Let  him  who  understands  the 
gospel  teach  it ;'  yet  the  sentiment  is  fast  gaining  ground 
among  them,  that  literature  and  science  are  very  useful 
auxiliaries  in  the  illustration  and  enforcement  of  divine 
truth ;  and  a  charter  was  obtained,  in  1832,  from  the  legis- 
lature of  Indiana,  for  a  Christian  College,  to  be  located  in 
New  Albany. 

"They  are  Independents  in  Church  polity,  yet  repre 
sented  in  associations  composed  of  ministers  and  laymen 
after  the  manner  of  presbyteries  and  synods,  but  without 
judicial  authority.  For  the  purpose  of  promoting  the 
general  interest  and  prosperity  of  the  connection  by 
mutual  efforts  and  joint  counsels,  associations  were  formed, 
denominated  conferences.  Ministers  and  churches,  repre- 
sented by  delegates,  formed  themselves,  in  each  State,  into 
one  or  more  conferences,  called  State  Conferences,  and 
delegates  from  these  conferences  formed  the  United  States 
General  Christian  Conference.  This  general  conference 
has  been  given  up.  The  local  or  State  conferences  are 
Btill  continued,  possessing,  however,  no  authority  or  control 
over  the  independence  of  the  churches. 

"  They  number  40  associations,  or  conferences,  1100 
ministers,  1200  churches,  and  80,000  communicants." 

SIX  PRINCIPLE  BAPTISTS. 

"  The  appellation  of  Six  Principle  Baptists  is  applied  at 
the  present  time  to  a  few  churches  in  Rhode  Island  and  a 
few  other  States,  who,  grounding  their  belief  on  Heb.  vi. 
1-3,  make  the  imposition  of  hands  on  all  newly  baptized 
members  an  indispensable  pre-requisite  to  church  fellow- 


BAPTISTS  —  MINOR    DENOMINATIONS.         167 

ship  and  communion.  As  the  people  of  this  sentiment 
wfire  among  the  first  settlers  in  the  State,  where  most  of 
them  now  reside,  the  Old  Baptists  is  a  term  very  commonly 
applied  to  them,  to  distinguish  them  from  their  brethren 
of  less  rigid  views  on  the  rite  in  question.  For  a  long 
time  after  the  settlement  of  Rhode  Island,  the  Baptist.  • 
brotherhood  who  carry  out  to  the  letter  the  six  principles 
laid  down  by  the  apostle  Paul  to  the  converted  Hebrews, 
had  a  controlling  influence  in  Baptist  affairs  in  the  State ; 
but  some  of  their  churches  have  become  extinct,  and  others 
have  ceased  to  maintain  on  this  point  the  sentiments  of 
their  progenitors  ;  and  the  Orthodox,  Free  Will,  and  other 
classes  of  Baptists  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  ground 
where  the  old  order  formerly  almost  exclusively  prevailed. 
"  They  have  twenty  churches,  twenty-two  ministers, 
and  3500  communicants." 

WINEBRENNARIANS. 

This  is  a  small  denomination  of  Baptists,  which  received 
its  origin  from  the  Rev.  John  Winebrenner,  of  Harrisburg, 
Pa.,  in  1830.  They  assumed  to  themselves  the  name  of 
THE  CHUKCH  of  GOD.  It  is  certainly  allowed  to  every 
religious  body  to  assume  whatever  name  they  choose  in  our 
free  and  happy  country.  If  such  name  should  not  distin- 
guish them  from  others,  no  great  evil  can  arise  from  that 
circumstance,  inasmuch  as  the  right  of  others  is  equally 
perfect  to  bestow  a  name  upon  them  by  which  they  shall 
be  really  distinguished. 

The  Winebrennarian  Baptist  Church  was  organized  in 
1830;  and,  through  a  fervent  zeal  in  preaching  the  gospel, 
has  secured  a  very  considerable  degree  of  success.  They 
reject  creeds  and  are  Arminians  in  doctrine.  They  reject 
infant  baptism,  and  practise  immersion,  and  the  literal 
Wishing  of  the  saints'  feet  as  an  appointed  ordinance. 


168  UNITARIANS. 

They  hold  that  domestic  slavery  and  civil  war  are  sinful, 
and  believe  in  the  personal  reign  of  Christ.  In  ecclesias- 
tical government  they  are  Presbyterian.  They  number  at 
the  present  time  132  ministers,  275  churches,  and  13,800 
communicants,  existing  in  three  presbyteries,  which  the) 
term  elderships. 


UNITARIANS. 

UNITARIANS  take  their  name  from  that  point  of  belief 
whereon  they  first  diveiged  from  the  generally  held  views 
of  Christians.  Their  fundamental  principle  may  be  stated 
to  be  the  trustworthiness  of  the  human  faculties,  and  their 
competency,  when  duly  trained  and  freed  from  prejudice,  to 
receive  moral  and  religious,  no  less  than  scientific,  truths. 
In  pursuance  of  this  principle,  they  have  carried  to  the 
farthest  point  yet  reached  by  any  denomination  the  Prot- 
estant belief  in  the  right  of  private  judgment  and  rever- 
ence for  the  individual  conscience.  They  do  not  hesitate 
to  bring  all  theological  systems  and  the  sacred  writings 
of  both  Jews  and  Christians  to  this  test.  What  does  tho 
best  instructed  reason,  the  clearest  ascertained  science, 
and  the  most  enlightened  conscience  decide  upon  them? 
Believing  truth  to  be  infinite,  they  have  always  declined 
to  lay  down  any  set  of  dogmas  which  should  pretend  to 
include  it  all,  or  to  make  a  belief  in  special  dogmas  a 
test  of  fellowship.  A  very  wide  range  of  individual  opin- 
ion is  hence  included  in  this  body,  it  having  always  been 
its  cardinal  doctrine  that  unity  of  spirit  and  aim  should 
take  precedence'  of  unity  of  thought.  There  is,  however, 
:i  general  similarity  of  conclusion  arrived  at  by  this  free 
action  of  mind  upon  religious  thought,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing is  an  outline:  (1.)  A  belief  in  a  supreme  God  of 
unchanging  goodness  and  wisdom,  whose  will  and  attri- 


UNITARIANS.  169 

butes  are  made  known  to  us  in  the  universal  order  of 
things  so  far  as  we  can  understand  it,  in  human  experi- 
ence so  far  as  it  has  been  transmitted  to  us,  and  in  our 
own  reason  and  conscience  so  far  as  we  will  examine 
them.  (2.)  A  grateful  recognition  of  Jesus  as  the  Founder 
of  the  Christian  religion,  and  the  great  Leader  and  In- 
spirer  of  all  who  seek  to  lead  a  holy  life,  with  a  growing 
tendency  to  see  in  him  this  entire  and  perfect  humanity. 
(3.)  A  persuasion  that  man's  highest  duty  is  to  live  in 
love  toward  his  fellow-man,  and  in  perfect  fidelity  to 
those  convictions  of  truth  which  he  has  attained.  (4.) 
A  belief  that  the  moral  order  which  reigns  here  reigns 
throughout  the  universe,  eternally  rewarding  all  right 
action  and  purpose,  and  eternally  overthrowing  and  pun- 
ishing all  wrong  action  and  purpose. 

In  this  country,  the  divergence  of  many  of  the  Con- 
gregational churches  of  New  England  from  the  older 
standards  toward  this  type  came  into  notice  about  a  cen- 
tury ago.  Among  a  people  so  interested  in  theology  as 
New  Englauders  then  were,  earnest  discussion  was  at  once 
provoked,  and  it  was  finally  found  that  about  a  third  of 
the  churches  held  these  views.  New  England,  especially 
Massachusetts,  still  remains  the  centre  of  this  form  of 
faith,  though  single  churches  are  found  in  almost  all  the 
large  cities  of  the  North  and  West.  Statistics  give  a  total 
of  330  churches  and  about  400  ministers.  There  are  also 
two  Divinity  schools,  one  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
the  other  at  Meadville,  Pennsylvania.  The  two  principal 
organizations  connected  with  this  body  are  the  American 
Unitarian  Association  and  the  National  Conference  of 
Unitarian  and  other  Christian  Churches.  There  are  pub- 
lished in  the  denomination  Old  and  New,  a  monthly 
magazine  ;•  The  Religious  Magazine,  also  monthly ;  The 
Christian  Register  and  Liberal  Christian,  weekly,  and  The 

S.  School  Gazette,  bi-monthly. 
ift 


170  UNIVERSALISTS, 


UNIVERSALISTS. 

THERE  are  two  classes  of  Christians  that  have  passed 
ander  this  general  name  —  Universalists,  so  called,  and 
Restorationists.  They  were  formerly  reckoned  one. 

The  Restorationists  held  the  doctrine  of  punishment  in 
the  future  state,  but  maintained  that  all  mankind  would  be 
ultimately  restored. 

The  other  class,  which  embraces  but  few  of  either 
clergy  or  laity,  maintain  that  every  human  being,  on  dying, 
.passes  immediately  into  a  state  of  eternal  happiness.  They 
are  Unitarians  in  doctrine ;  and  allege  that  sin  brings  its 
own  punishment,  and  consequently  that  to  punish  men  in 
a  future  state  would  be  unjust.  The  early  Universalists 
in  this  country  were  Restorationists.  Of  this  class  was 
Dr.  Benneville,  of  Germantown,  Pa.,  and  Rev'd  John 
Murray,  who  came  hither  from  England  in  1770. 

In  1780,  Rev.  Elhanan  Winchester,  a  Baptist  preacher, 
embraced  the  doctrine  of  Universalism.  About  ten  years 
subsequent  to  this,  the  Rev.  Hosea  Ballou  embraced  the 
Bame  doctrine,  but  on  the  principles  first  described  in  this 
article.  He  may  be  properly  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  Church  in  the  United  States. 

Thp  TTniversalist  Expositor  gives  the  following  statistics 
of  the  denomination : 

"  The  ministry  of  the  Universalist  denomination  in  the 
United  States  hitherto  has  been  provided  for,  not  so  much 
by  the  means  of  schools,  as  by  the  unaided  but  irresistible 
influence  of  the  gospel  of  Christ.  This  has  furnished  the 
denomination  with  its  most  successful  preachers.  It  has 
turned  them  from  other  sects  and  doctrines,  and  brought 


UNI  VERBALISTS.  171 

them  out  from  forests  and  fields,  and  from  secular  pursuits 
of  almost  every  kind,  and  driven  them,  with  inadequate 
literary  preparation,  to  the  work  of  disseminating  the 
truth.  This  state  of  things  has  been  unavoidable,  and  the 
effect  of  it  is  visible.  It  has  made  the  ministry  of  the 
Universalist  denomination  very  different  from  that  of  any 
other  sect  in  the  country ;  studious  of  the  Scriptures,  con- 
fident in  the  truth  of  their  distinguishing  doctrine,  zealous, 
firm,  industrious  :  depending  more  on  the  truths  commu- 
nicated for  their  success,  than  on  the  manner  in  which 
they  were  stated.  It  has  had  the  effect,  too,  to  give  the 
ministry  a  polemic  character, — the  natural  result  of  unwa- 
vering faith  in  the  doctrine  believed,  and  of  an  introduc- 
tion into  the  desk  without  scholastic  training.  But  the 
attention  of  the  denomination  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try has  of  late  been  turned  to  the  education  of  the  ministry ; 
and  conventions  and  associations  have  adopted  resolves, 
requiring  candidates  to  pass  examinations  in  certain 
branches  of  literature.  The  same  motives  have  governed 
many  in  their  effort  to  establish  literary  and  theological 
institutions." 

They  have  recently  engaged  quite  earnestly  in  this  work, 
and  have  now  several  flourishing  literary  institutions  under 
their  superintendence.  Among  these  are  Tuft's  College, 
Medford,  Mass.,  Dean  Academy,  Franklin,  Mass.,  West- 
brook  Seminary,  Westbrook,  Maine,  Green  Mountain  In- 
qtitute,  Barre,  Vt.,  St.  Lawrence  University,  Canton,  N. 
ir.,  Clinton  Liberal  Institute,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  Lombard 
University,  Galesburg,  111.,  and  six  or  seven  others. 

In  1779,  the  first  Universalist  Society  was  organized 
at  Gloucester,  Mass.  There  are  now  917  societies  pro- 
fessing this  faith. 

In  1799,  the  General  Convention  (organized  in  1785^ 
was  the  only  association  of  the  clergy.  There  are  now 


172  UNIVERSALTSTS. 

the  General  Convention  of  the  United  States,  13  state 
conventions,  and  more  than  70  associations. 

The  first  Universalist  newspaper  in  the  United  States 
(the  "  Universalist  Magazine")  was  commenced  in  Boston, 
July  >,  1819,  with  less  than  one  thousand  subscribers. 
There  are  now  17  periodicals  of  this  description,  with  an 
aggregate  list  of  about  30,000  subscribers. 

We  have  not  been  able  to  find  any  reliable  account  of  the 
number  of  communicants.  They  have  accommodations  for 
205,462  worshippers,  and  about  $2,000,000  worth  of  church 
property. 

In  1864  the  Convention  passed  resolutions  sustaining 
the  government  in  the  war  for  the  Union,  condemning 
oppression,  and  remonstrating  against  any  concession  to 
traitors,  and  any  movement  or  adjustment  which  might 
put  our  colored  soldiers  at  the  mercy  of  their  old  masters. 
During  the  two  years,  1864  and  1865,  it  was  stated  that 
the  denomination  had  raised  over  half  a  million  dollars 
for  educational  purposes.  At  the  Convention  of  1865  a 
Board  of  Missions  was  elected,  and  it  was  resolved  to 
raise  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  for  their  use.  Iu 
1866  the  Convention  met  at  Galesburg,  Illinois,  when  it 
was  reported  that  but  seventeen  thousand  dollars  of  this 
amount  had  been  raised.  Stringent  resolutions  against 
the  policy  of  the  President,  and  in  favor  of  impartial 
suffrage,  wore  adopted.  Resolutions  of  sympathy  with 
Unitarians,  and  offering  to  unite  with  them  in  any  way 
practicable  in  the  Christianizing  of  the  world,  were 
adopted  by  a  large  majority.  In  the  Convention  of  the 
following  year,  this  action  was  qualified,  if  not  virtually 
rescinded,  by  a  resolution  affirming  the  divine  authority 
of  Scripture  and  the  Lordship  of  Christ,  as  tests  of 
church  membership.  Only  one  person  voted  in  the  nega- 
tive. A  Universalist  preacher  in  .Boston,  who  had  had 


CNIVERSALISTS.  173 

I 

trouble  with  his  congregation  on  account  of  the  extreme 
Unitarian  views  which  he  preached,  was  refused  admis- 
sion to  the  Convention  by  a  vote  of  95  to  16.  At  this 
Convention,  it  was  again  resolved  to  raise  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars  for  denominational  purposes.  The  Con- 
vention received  an  act  of  incorporation,  March  9,  1866. 
In  1868  resolutions  were  adopted  recognizing  a  call  for 
a  general  spiritual  awakening  and  recommending  confer- 
ence and  prayer  meetings,  wherever  practicable.  In  1869 
two  new  State  Conventions,  those  of  Missouri  and  Kansas, 
were  recognized  and  admitted  by  their  delegates  into  the 
General  Convention,  and  arrangements  were  perfected  for 
a  very  earnest  demonstration  in  behalf  of  all  the  interests 
of  the  body  during  the  following  year,  which  was  the  cen- 
tenary of  the  establishment  of  Uuiversalism  as  an  organ- 
ized church  in  America. 

The  Register  for  1871  says  that  the  preceding  or  cen- 
tenary year  was  one  of  unprecedented  activity  throughout 
the  denomination.  The  proposed  Murray  Centenary, 
Fund  of  two  hundred  thousand  dollars  was  nearly  all 
raised.  The  income  only  is  to  be  used  and  applied  to 
aid  theological  students,  in  the  distribution  of  denomina- 
tional literature,  and  in  church  extension. 

Statistics  of  1870:  74  associations,  917  parishes,  692 
meeting-houses,  625  ministers,  36  new  churches  built, 
18  installations,  including  one  woman,  28  ordinations, 
contributed  or  pledged  for  benevolent  enterprises,  beside 
the  Murray  Fund  and  ordinary  parish  expenses,  nine 
hundred  thousand  dollars.  Three  colleges  are  in  opera- 
tion, and  three  more  are  projected.  There  are  two 
divinity  schools  and  one  law  school,  with  seven  academies. 
These  institutions  own  property  and  funds  to  the  amount 
of  Si  ,832,000. 

The  denomination  has  5  weekly  papers,  and  8  monthly, 

1ft  » 


174  SWEDENBOHQIANS. 

quarterly,  and  semi-monthly  periodicals.  The  number  of 
tjie  membership  is  not  given.  The  Register  claims  it  as 
"  ground  for  just  pride  and  congratulation  that  we  are 
dealing  with  living  forces,  not  with  fossils  and  petrifac- 
tions capable  of  exact  enumeration  and  classification." 
It  also  specifies  "the  better  education  of  our  ministers, 
the  improving  tone  of  spiritual  culture  among  our  people, 
the  multiplying  and  strengthening  of  our  religious,  edu- 
cational and  benevolent  institutions"  as  exhibited  by  the 
record  of  the  preceding  year.  These  evidences  of  pros- 
perity will  strike  the  public  more  forcibly,  when  the  roll? 
of  a  large  and  permanent  membership  can  be  made  ou< 
and  the  results  spread  before  the  eye. 


SWEDENBORGIANS. 

THE  Swedenborgians  are  so  called  from  the  late  Hon. 
Emanuel  Swedenborg,  son  of  Jasper  Swedenborg,  bishop 
of  West-Gothia.  He  was  born  at  Stockholm,  in  the  year 
1689 ;  and  died  in  London,  1772. 

He  early  enjoyed  all  the  advantages  of  a  liberal  educa- 
tion, having  studied  with  great  attention  in  the  academy 
of  Upsal,  and  in  the  universities  of  England,  Holland, 
France,  and  Germany.  Endued  with  uncommon  talents 
for  the  acquirement  of  learning,  his  progress  in  the  sciencea 
was  rapid  and  extensive;  and,  at  an  early  period  in  life, 
he  distinguished  himself  by  various  publications  on  philo- 
sophical subjects. 

His  philosophic  studies  led  him  to  refer  natural  pheno* 
mena  to  spiritual  agency,  and  to  suppose  that  there  is  a 
close  connection  between  the  two  worlds  of  matter  and 
spirit.  Hence  his  system  teaches  us  to  consider  all  the 
visible  universe,  with  everything  that  it.  contains,  as  a 
theatre  and  representation  of  the  invisible  world,  froir 


SWEDENEORGIANS.  J75 

which  it  first  derived  Its  existence,  and  by  connection  with 
which  it  continually  subsists. 

Swedenborg's  extraordinary  genius  and  learning,  ac 
companied  with  the  purity  of  his  life  and  uprightness  of 
his  character,  attracted  the  public  notice.  Hence  he 
received  various  literary  and  political  honors.  These, 
however,  he  considered  of  small  importance,  compared  with 
the  distinguished  privilege  of  having,  as  he  supposed,  hia 
spiritual  sight  opened,  and  conversing  with  spirits  and 
angels  in  the  spiritual  world. 

He  first  began  to  have  his  revelation  in  London.  He 
asserted  that,  on  a  certain  night,  a  man  appeared  to  him 
in  the  midst  of  a  strong  shining  light,  and  said,  "  I  am 
God,  the  Lord,  the  Creator,  and  Redeemer ;  I  have  chosen 
thee  to  explain  to  men  the  interior  and  spiritual  sense  of  the 
sacred  writings.  I  will  dictate  to  thee  what  thou  oughtest 
to  write."  He  affirmed  that,  after  this  period,  his  spiritual 
sight  was  opened  so  far  that  he  could  see,  in  the  most  clear 
and  distinct  manner,  what  passed  in  the  spiritual  world, 
and  converse  with  angels  and  spirits  in  the  same  manner 
as  with  men.  Accordingly,  in  his  u  Treatise  concerning 
Heaven  and  Hell,"  he  relates  the  wonders  which  he  saw 
in  the  invisible  worlds,  and  gives  an  account  of  various  and 
heretofore  unknown  particulars,  relating  to  the  peace,  the 
happiness,  the  light,  the  order  of  heaven,  together  with 
the  forms,  the  functions,  the  habitations,  and  even  the 
garments  of  the  heavenly  inhabitants.  He  relates  his 
conversations  with  angels,  and  describes  the  condition  of 
Jews,  Mahometans,  Christians,  clergymen  of  every  deno- 
mination, laity,  &c.,  in  the  other  world. 

Swedenborg  called  the  doctrines  which  he  delivered, 
"The  Heavenly  Doctrines  of  the  New  Jerusalem."  It 
is  thus  styled,  for,  according  to  his  system,  the  New 
Jerusalem  signifies  the  new  church  upon  earth,  which  is 


176  SWEDENBORG  IANS. 

now  about  to  be  established  by  the  Lord,  and  which  is 
particularly  described,  as  to  its  glory  and  excellency,  in 
Rev.  xxi.,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  sacred  word. 

The  holy  city,  or  New  Jerusalem,  he  interpreted  as 
descriptive  of  a  new  dispensation  of  heavenly  truth,  break- 
ing through  and  dissipating  the  darkness  which  at  this 
day  prevails  on  earth.  The  laws  of  divine  order,  and  the 
economy  of  God's  kingdom,  providence,  and  operation, 
will  be  more  clearly  and  fully  understood,  and  the  hearts 
of  men  will  thus  be  opened  to  a  nearer  intercourse  with 
heaven,  and  rendered  admissive  of  the  purer  influences  of 
gospel  love  and  charity  in  their  lives  and  conversation. 

The  following  extract  contains  the  general  outlines  of 
Swedenborg's  theological  system : 

First.  That  the  Sacred  Scripture  contains  three  distinct 
senses,  called  celestial,  spiritual,  and  natural;  and  that, 
in  each  sense,  it  is  divine  truth,  accommodated  respectively 
to  the  angels  of  the  three  heavens,  and  also  to  men  on 
earth. 

2dly.  That  there  is  a  correspondence  between  all  things 
in  heaven  and  all  things  in  man ;  and  that  this  science  of 
correspondences  is  a  key  to  the  spiritual  or  internal  sense 
of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  every  page  of  which  is  written 
by  correspondences,  that  is,  by  such  things  in  the  natural 
world  as  correspond  unto  and  signify  things  in  the  spiritual 
world. 

3dly.  That  there  is  a  divine  trinity  of  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost,  or,  in  other  words,  of  the  all-begetting  Di- 
vinity, (Divinum  a  quo]  the  divine  human,  and  the  divine 
proceeding  or  operation ;  and  that  this  trinity  consisteth 
not  of  three  distinct  persons,  but  is  united,  as  body,  soul, 
and  operation  in  man,  in  the  one  person  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  who,  therefore,  is  the  God  of  heaven,  and  alone  to 


SWELENBORGIANS.  177 

be  worshipped,  being  Creator  from  eternity,  Redeemer  in 
time,  and  Regenerator  to  eternity. 

4thly.  That  redemption  consisteth  not  in  the  vicarious 
sacrifice  of  the  Redeemer,  and  an  atonement  to  appease 
the  Divine  wrath,  but  in  a  real  subjugation  of  the  powers 
of  darkness ;  in  a  restoration  of  order  and  good  govern- 
ment in  the  spiritual  world:  in  checking  the  overgrown 
influences  of  wicked  spirits  on  the  souls  of  men,  and  open- 
ing a  nearer  and  clearer  communication  with  the  heavenly 
and  angelic  powers ;  in  making  salvation,  which  is  regene- 
ration, possible  for  all,  who  believe  on  the  incarnate  God, 
and  keep  his  commandments. 

5thly.  That  there  is  an  universal  influx  from  God  into 
the  souls  of  men.  The  soul,  upon  receiving  this  influx 
from  God,  transmits  it,  through  the  perceptive  faculties  of 
the  mind,  to  the  body.  The  Lord,  with  all  his  divine 
wisdom,  consequently  with  all  the  essence  of  faith  and 
charity,  entereth  by  influx  into  every  man,  but  is  received 
by  every  m;m  according  to  his  state  and  form.  Hence  it- 
is  that  good  influxes  from  God  are  changed,  by  the  evil 
nature  of  their  recipients,  into  their  opposites,  good  into 
evil,  and  truth  into  falsehood. 

6thly.  That  we  are  placed  in  this  world,  subject  to  the 
influences  of  two  most  opposite  principles ;  of  good  from 
the  Lord  and  his  holy  angels;  of  evil  from  hell  or  evil 
Bpirits.  While  we  live  in  this  world,  our  spirits  have  their 
abode  in  the  spiritual  world,  where  we  are  kept  in  a  kind 
of  spiritual  equilibrium  by  the  continual  action  of  those 
contrary  powers,  in  consequence  of  which,  we  are  at  per- 
fect liberty  to  turn  to  which  we  please.  That,  without 
this  free  will  in  spiritual  things,  regeneration  cannot  be 
effected.  If  we  submit  to  God  we  receive  real  life  from 
him ;  if  not,  we  receive  that  life  from  hell,  which  is  called 
in  Scripture,  spiritual  death.  , 

M 


178  SWEDENBORUIANS. 

7thly.  That  heaven  and  hell  are  not  arbitrary  appoint- 
ments of  God.  Heaven  is  a  state  arising  from  the  good 
affections  of  the  heart,  and  a  correspondence  of  the  words 
and  actions,  grounded  on  sincere  love  to  God  and  man , 
and  hell  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  an  evil  and 
thoughtless  life,  enslaved  by  the  vile  affections  of  self-love 
arid  love  of  the  world  without  being  brought  under  the 
regulations  of  heavenly  love  by  a  right  submission  of  the 
will,  the  understanding,  and  actions,  to  the  truth  and 
spirit  of  heaven. 

Sthly.  That  there  is  an  intermediate  state  for  departed 
Bouls  which  is  called  the  world  of  spirits,  and  that  very 
few  pass  directly  to  heaven  or  hell.  This  is  a  state  of 
purification  to  the  good ;  but  to  bad  spirits  it  is  a  state  of 
separation  of  all  the  extraneous  good  from  the  radical  evil 
which  constitutes  the  essence  of  their  natures. 

9thly.  That,  throughout  heaven,  such  as  are  of  like  dis- 
positions and  qualities  are  consociated  into  particular  fel- 
lowships ;  and  such  as  differ  in  these  respects  are  separated, 
so  that  every  society  in  heaven  consists  of  similar  members. 

lOthly.  That  man,  immediately  on  his  decease,  rises 
again  in  a  spiritual  body,  which  was  inclosed  in  his  material 
body ;  and  that,-  in  this  spiritual  body,  he  lives  as  a  man 
to  eternity,  either  in  heaven,  or  in  hell,  according  to  the 
quality  of  his  past  life. 

llthly.  That  those  passages  in  the  Sacred  Scripture 
generally  supposed  to  signify  the  destruction  of  the  world 
bv  fire,  &c.,  commonly  called  the  last  judgment,  must  be 
understood  according  to  the  above-mentioned  science  of 
correspondences,  which  teaches,  that  by  the  end  of  the 
world  or  consummation  of  the  age,  is  not  signified  the 
destruction  of  the  world,  but  the  end  or  consummation  of 
the  present  Christian  church,  both  among  Roman  Catholics 
and  Protestants  of  every  description  and  denomination. 


I 
SW  EDENBORGHANS.  179 

That  this  consummation,  which  consists  in  the  total  falsi- 
fication of  the  Divine  truth,  and  adulteration  of  the  Divine 
good  of  the  word,  has  actually  taken  place ;  and,  together 
with  the  establishment  of  a  new  church,  in  place  of  the 
former,  is  described  in  the  Revelations,  in  the  internal 
sense  of  that  book ;  in  which  the  new  church  is  meant,  aa 
to  its  internals,  by  the  new  heaven,  and  as  to  its  externals, 
by  the  new  earth ;  also,  by  the  New  Jerusalem  descending 
by  Grod  out  of  heaven. 

It  is  one  of  the  leading  doctrines  of  Swedenborg,  in  hia 
explanation  of  the  other  books  of  Scripture,  that  one  of 
the  principal  uses  for  which  the  Word  is  given,  is  that  it 
might  be  a  medium  of  communication  between  the  Lord 
and  man;  also,  that  earth  might  be  thereby  conjoined 
with  heaven,  or  human  minds  with  angelic  minds  ;  which 
is  effected  by  correspondences,  and  natural  things  with 
spiritual,  according  to  which  the  Word  is  written ;  and 
that,  in  order  to  its  being  divine  (divinum  verum  in 
ultimo),  it  could  not  be  written  otherwise.  That  hence, 
in  many  parts  of  the  letter,  the  Word  is  clothed  with 
appearances  of  truths  accommodated  to  the  apprehension 
of  the  simple  and  unlearned ;  as,  when  evil  passions  are 
attributed  to  the  Lord,  and  whe^e  it  is  said,  that  he  with- 
holdeth  his  mercy  from  man,  forsakes  him,  casts  him  into 
hell,  doeth  evil,  &c. ;  whereas  such  things  do  not  at  all 
belong  to  the  Lord,  but  are  so  said,  in  the  same  manner 
as  we  speak  of  the  sun's  rising  and  setting,  and  othei 
natural  phenomena,  according  to  the  appearance  of  things, 
or  as  they  appear  to  the  outward  senses.  To  the  taking 
up  such  appearances  of  truth  from  the  letter  of  Scripture, 
and  making  this  or  that  point  of  faith,  derived  from  them, 
the  essential  of  the  church,  instead  of  explaining  them  by 
doctrine  drawn  from  the  genuine  truths,  which,  in  other 
parts  of  the  Word,  are  left  naked,  Swcdeuborg  ascribes 


180  SWEDKNBORGIANS. 

the  various  dissensions  and  heresies  which  have  arisen 
in  the  church,  and  which,  he  says,  could  not  be  pre- 
vented, consistently  with  the  preservation  of  man's  free 
agency,  both  with  respect  to  the  exertion  of  .his  will,  and 
of  his  understanding.  But  yet,  he  says,  every  one,  in 
whatever  heresy  he  may  be  with  respect  to  the  under- 
Btanding,  may  still  be  reformed  and  saved,  provided  he 
shuns  evils  as  sins,  and  does  not  confirm  heretical  tastes 
in  himself;  for,  by  shunning  evils  as  sins,  the  will  is  re- 
formed, and  by  the  will,  the  understanding,  which  then 
first  emerges  out  of  darkness  into  light.  That  the  word, 
in  its  lowest  sense,  is  thus  made  the  medium  of  salvation 
to  those  who  are  obedient  to  its  precepts ;  while  this  sense 
serves  to  guard  its  internal  sanctities  from  being  violated 
bj>  the  wicked  and  profane,  and  is  represented  by  the 
chorubim  placed  at  the  gates  of  Eden,  and  the  flaming 
sw  ^rd  turning  every  way  to  guard  the  tree  of  life. 

His  doctrine  respecting  differences  of  opinion  in  the 
ch  arch  is  summed  up  in  these  words  :  "  There  are  three 
essentials  of  the  church:  an  acknowledgment  of  the  Lord's 
dhinity  ;  an  acknowledgment  of  the  holiness  of  the  Word; 
and  the  life,  which  is  charity.  Conformable  to  his  life, 
i.  e-  to  his  charity,  is  every  man's  real  faith.  From  the 
Wcrd  he  hath  the  knowledge  of  what  his  life  ought  to  be; 
and  from  the  Lord  he  hath  reformation  and  salvation.  If 
thene  three  had  been  held  as  essentials  of  the  church,  in- 
tellectual dissensions  would  not  have  divided  it,  but  would 
only  have  varied  it,  as  the  light  varieth  colors  in  beautiful 
objects,  and  as  various  jewels  constitute  the  beauty  of  a 
kingly  crown." 

The  moral  doctrines  of  the  New  Jerusalem  Church  are 
comprised  under  general  heads,  collected  from  Sweden- 
borg's  writings,  and  prefixed  to  some  proposals,  published 


SWEDENBORGIANS.  18] 

m  England,  for  the  organization  and  establishment  of  a 
society. 

Under  those  general  heads,  it  is  proposed  to  promote 
marriages  upon  the  principles  of  the  new  church,  which 
are,  that  true  conjugal  love  consists  in  the  most  perfect 
and  intimate  union  of  minds,  which  constitutes  one  life,  as 
the  will  and  understanding  are  united  in  one.  That  this 
love  exists  only  with  those  who  are  in  states  of  regenera- 
tion. That,  after  the  decease  of  conjugal  partners  of  this 
description,  they  meet,  and  all  the  mere  natural  loves 
being  separated,  the  mental  union  is  perfected,  and  they 
are  exalted  into  the  wisdom  and  happiness  of  the  angelic 
life. 

Swedenborg  founded  his  doctrines  on  the  spiritual  sense 
of  the  Word  of  God,  which  he  declared  was  revealed  to 
him  immediately  from  the  Lord  out  of  heaven.  As  hia 
language  is  peculiar,  his  reasoning  cannot  be  abridged  so 
as  to  be  rendered  intelligible  to  the  generality  of  readers. 
Those  who  are  lesirous  of  farther  information  are  referred 
to  his  numerous  and  singular  productions. 

Those  who  embrace  the  tenets  of  Swedenborg  are  nu- 
merous in  England,  Germany,  Sweden,  &c.  Societies 
are  also  formed  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  for  spreading 
his  doctrines ;  and,  where  societies  have  not  been  formed, 
there  are  individuals  who  admire  his  writings  and  embrace 
his  sentiments,  particularly  in  England,  France,  Germany, 
Holland,  Sweden,  Russia,  Poland,  Turkey,  and  even  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  and  America. 

Their  ecclesiastical  order  is  a  mixture  of  Presbyterian- 
ism  and  Congregationalism. 

They  practise  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  use 
confirmation,  the  solemnization  of  matrimony,  after  the 
ordinary  ceremony  at  church,  and  a  burial  service.  They 
approximate  to  an  independent  form  of  church  govern 


SWEDENBORGIANS. 

ment,  but  their  discipline  is  not  yet  <|efinitely  settled.  No 
candidate  for  ordination  can  be  admitted  till  after  he  has 
been  baptized  into  the  faith  of  the  new  church,  the  formula 
of  which  is — "  I  baptize  thee  into  the  name  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  who  is  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit." 

The  first  person  who  introduced  Swedenborgianism  into 
this  country  was  a  Mr.  Glen,  who  delivered  lectures  on  toe 
subject  in  Philadelphia,  in  1784.  The  first  American  min- 
ister was  ordained  in  1798.  Their  increase  has  been  slow. 

There  is  a  General  Convention  of  the  New  Jerusalem 
Church  in  the  United  States,  in  which  are  represented 
associations  in  the  States  of  Illinois,  Maine,  Maryland, 
Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio,  besides  4  isolated 
societies ;  and  there  are  receivers  of  Swedenborg's  doc- 
trines scattered  through  all  the  other  States.  The  number 
of  ordaining  ministers  connected  with  the  General  Con- 
vention, is  6 ;  pastors  and  missionaries,  29 ;  licentiates 
and  ministers,  14. 

There  are  many  societies  not  connected  with  the  Gene- 
ral Convention.  There  are  probably  not  more  than  15  or 
20  church  edifices  belonging  to  this  denomination  in  the 
United  States,  and  the  number  of  communicants  probably 
dees  not  exceed  10,000.  The  Journal  of  Proceedings  of 
the  General  Convention  furnishes  no  information  as  to  the 
aggregate  number  of  believers. 


CONGREGATIONALISTS.  183 


CONGKEGATIONALISTS. 

SCRIPTURAL  Congregationalism  denotes  a  system  of 
self-governed  local  churches,  each  free  and  yet  all  in  fel- 
lowship with  each  other.  Each  church  is  composed  of 
regenerated  men  statedly  meeting  in  one  place,  united  by 
a  covenant  for  the  worship  of  God  and  for  holy  living 
in  all  things.  The  Bible  is  regarded  by  them  as  the  only 
and  sufficient  rule  of  ecclesiastical  order,  as  well  as  of 
faith.  There  is  no  legislative  or  judicial  power  above  the 
local  church.  Each  church  has  full  power  to  choose  its 
officers,  to  receive  members,  to  exercise  discipline,  and  to 
do  all  things  required  for  the  common  welfare.  Congre- 
gational churches,  though  thus  free  and  self-governed,  are 
not  so  disjoined  as  to  be  insulated  elements,  but  are  united 
to  Christ  in  one  common  cause,  are  in  sympathy  and  fel- 
lowship with  each  other,  which  is  to  be  manifested  in  all 
appropriate  ways — by  exchange  of  members  by  letter,  by 
regarding  and  sustaining  the  discipline  of  each  other,  by 
meeting  in  council  as  occasion  may  require,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, by  admonition  and  reproof.  If  any  church  becomes 
unsound  in  doctrine  or  scandalous  or  immoral  in  practice, 
and  will  not  be  reformed  by  admonition  and  council,  the 
sound  churches  are  to  withdraw  fellowship  from  the  of- 
fending church. 

On  these  principles  were  the  apostolic  churches  organ- 
ized, as  is  confessed  by  Mosheim,  Gibbon,  Barrow,  and 
other  eminent  scholars  of  all  denominations.  These  prin- 
ciples were  in  process  of  time  suppressed  by  centralized 
and  despotic  organizations,  though  in  every  age  some  have 


184  CONGREGATIONALIST  S. 

held  to  them  to  some  extent.  But  after  the  "Reformation 
restored  the  study  of  the  Bible  they  were  once  more  fully 
developed  and  reduced  to  practice  by  the  modern  Congre- 
gational churches. 

The  freedom  and  self-government  of  the  local  churches 
were  developed  and  reduced  to  practice  by  Robert  Brown 
in  1586.  But  he  did  not  as  fully  develop  the  fellowship 
of  the  churches  as  the  scriptural  ideal  requires.  Those 
who  adopted  his  views  were  at  first  called  Brownists. 
Others  who  more  fully  but  not  completely  developed  the 
fellowship  of  the  churches,  throwing  off  his  name,  were 
called  Independents.  In  New  England  the  name  Inde- 
pendents was  also  rejected,  and  the  fellowship  of  the 
churches  was  fully  developed,  and  the  name  Congrega- 
tionalist  assumed  in  the  Cambridge  platform.  For  a  time, 
in  England,  the  name  Independents  was  used  to  denote 
Congregational ists,  but  there- also  the  name  Congrega- 
tionalist  has  superseded  it,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Savoy 
declaration,  and  in  the  declaration  of  the  Congregational 
Union  of  England  and  Wales. 

Having  given  this  general  view  of  the  use  of  names 
and  the  relations  of  Brownists,  Independents,  and  Con- 
gregationalists,  let  us  follow  the  course  of  historical  de- 
velopment. Robert  Brown  became  prominent  among  those 
who,  in  1567,  resisted  the  attempts  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
of  England  to  suppress,  by  forcible  measures,  the  doc- 
trines and  assemblies  of  the  Puritans.  Brown  contended 
that  each  church  or  society  of  Christians  meeting  in  a 
single  place  was  a  body  corporate,  possessing  full  power 
wixMn  itself  to  admit  or  exclude  members,  to  choose  and 
ordain  officers,  and  also  to  depose  them,  without  being  in 
any  respect  responsible  to  synods,  councils,  or  any  other 
ecclesiastical  authority.  He  denied  the  supremacy  of  the 
queeli  in.  religious  and  ecclesiastical  matters,  he  refused 


CONGREGATIONALISTS.  '  185 

to  admit  that  the  established  Church  of  England  was  a 
scriptural  church,  and  asserted  that  the  Scriptures  were 
the  only  authoritative  guide  in  matters  of  faith  and  dis- 
cipline. He  also  held  that  the  labors  of  a  pastor  should 
be  confined  to  a  single  church,  and  that  five  orders  or 
offices  should  be  recognized  in  the  Christian  Church — 
namely,  pastor,  teacher,  elder,  deacon,  and  widow.  He 
also  asserted  that  the  priesthood  should  not  be  regarded 
as  a  distinct  order  from  the  laity.  Brown  arrived  at  the 
conviction  of  all  these  doctrines,  and  publicly  proclaimed 
them  as  a  separate  system  of  belief,  in  1586. 

As  might  have  been  naturally  expected  in  such  an  age, 
and  among  such  a  community  as  England  then  was,  the 
announcement  of  such  opinions  soon  led  to  persecution. 
Brown  was  hooted  in  the  streets,  pelted  with  stones,  and 
became  the  victim  of  general  obloquy.  Nevertheless,  ha 
persisted  in  his  course,  and  succeeded  in  assembling  and 
organizing  the  first  church  on  independent  principles 
known  to  exist  in  modern  times.  This  fact  only  led  to 
more  violent  persecution,  and  the  members  of  his  society 
were  visited  with  fines,  arrests,  imprisonments,  and  in  some 
instances  with  death,  until  at  last  the  condition  of  the  per- 
secuted Puritans  became  intolerable.  They  accordingly 
resolved  to  escape,  and  fled  in  a  body  to  Holland.  Brown 
subsequently  ventured  to  return  to  England,  but  he  was 
unable  to  accomplish  anything  there,  in  consequence  of 
the  general  outburst  of  persecution  which  overwhelmed 
him,  not  only  from  the  fanatical  mobs  in  the  streets  and 
in  the  community,  but  even  from  the  pulpits  and  from 
the  judicial  bench. 

In  1602  a  second  society  called  Independents  or  Con- 
gregationalists  was  formed  in  the  north  of  England,  of 
whom  John  Robinson  was  the  pastor.  By  them  the  fel- 
lowship of  the  churches  was  more  fully  developed,  espe- 

16* 


186  CONGREOATIONALISTS. 

cially  in  New  England.  Robinson  was  a  man  of  strong 
miud  and  superior  intelligence.  Although  he  and  his 
associates  lived  blamelessly  in  the  world,  merely  worship- 
ping God  according  to  the  dictates  of  their  own  consciences, 
j  et  they  were  soon  surrounded  and  afflicted  with  the  se- 
verest persecution.  The  whole  power  of  the  government 
and  of  the  prelatical  establishment  was  brought  to  bear 
upon  them,  and  they  soon  found  it  necessary  to  seek  re- 
pose and  safety  in  flight.  Mr.  Robinson  and  his  associates 
projected  a  plan  of  escape  to  Holland,  but  their  purpose 
was  frustrated  by  the  treachery  of  the  captain  of  the  vessel 
which  they  had  engaged.  He  happened  to  be  a  prelatist, 
and  betrayed  them  to  the  authorities.  They  were  im- 
prisoned for  a  time,  as  a  punishment  for  offences  the 
nature  of  which  was  undefined  and  unknown. 

Undaunted  by  these  reverses,  a  portion  of  Robinson's 
followers  made  a  second  attempt  to  flee  from  the  heavy 
hand  of  tyranny,  which  proved  more  successful.  In  the 
spring  of  1608,  Robinson,  in  company  with  Brewster, 
Bradford,  Carver,  Wilson,  and  other  leading  men,  accom- 
panied by  their  families,  met  at  night  on  a  lonely  heath 
in  Lincolnshire,  intending  to  escape  during  the  night. 
They  had  secretly  hired  a  vessel  for  that  purpose,  and 
at  the  appointed  time  it  appeared  in  the  offing.  The 
work  of  embarkation  commenced,  although  the  wind  was 
high  and  the  sea  rough.  Only  a  portion  of  the  fugitives 
succeeded  in  getting  on  board  before  the  remainder  were 
surprised  by  a  troop  of  horse,  were  arrested,  and  again 
conveyed  to  prison.  But  thesef  after  the  lapse  of  some 
time,  were  released,  and  eventually  joined  their  friends, 
who  had  arrived  in  Holland  and  obtained  a  home  and 
protection  in  Amsterdam. 

In  that  city  a  society  still  existed  which  traced  its 
origin  to  Robert  Brown.  The  associates  of  Robinson 


CONGREGATIONALISTS.  187 

united  with  it,  and  at  first  all  went  on  harmoniously. 
But  dissensions  soon  afterward  broke  out  among  them, 
and  Robinson's  friends  removed  to  Leyden.  Here  they 
remained  ten  years.  Some  of  these  had  oeen  men  of 
wealth,  but  they  were  at  that  time  so  impoverished,  by 
not  receiving  their  means  from  England,  that  they  were 
reduced  to  the  utmost  indigence,  and  were  compelled 
to  learn  mechanical  trades.  Brewster  became  a  printer, 
and  Bradford  a  silk  dyer.  During  the  period  of  their 
residence  at  Leyden  these  Congregationalists  were  ex- 
empted from  persecution,  and  Robinson  published  several 
works,  in  which  he  set  forth  and  defended  the  following 
points  as  constituting  his  belief: 

1.  That  no  church  ought  to  consist  of  more  numbers 
than  can  conveniently  meet  together  for  worship  and  dis- 
cipline. 2.  That  the  churches  of  Christ  are  to  consist 
of  those  who  believe  in  and  obey  Him.  3.  That  any 
competent  number  of  such  have  the  right,  when  con- 
science obliges  them,  to  form  themselves  into  a  distinct 
and  separate  church.  4.  That  this  incorporation  must 
be  effected  by  means  of  some  contract  or  covenant,  either 
expressed  or  implied.  5.  That  when  thus  incorporated 
they  have  full  power  and  authority  to  choose  their  own 
officers.  6.  That  these  officers  should  consist  of  pastors, 
or  teaching  elders,  ruling  elders,  and  deacons.  7.  That 
the  elders,  though  chosen  and  ordained,  have  no  power 
to  rule  over  the  church,  except  by  the  consent  of  the 
brethren.  8.  That  all  elders  and  churches  are  perfectly 
equal  in  their  powers  and  privileges.  9.  That  baptism, 
is  to  be  administered  to  believers  and  their  infant  chil- 
dren. That  the  Lord's  Supper  is  to  be  received  sitting 
at  the  table,  and  is  to  be  taken  every  Lord's  Day. 
That  ecclesiastical  censures  and  penalties  should  be  wholly 
spiritual,  and  not  attended  with  temporal  punishments. 


188  CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

10.  That  no  holy  days  were  to  be  observed,  except  the 
Sabbath,  though  occasional  days  of  fasting  and  thanks- 
giving were  to  be  recommended. 

It  was  in  1617  that  Robinson  conceived  the  idea  of 
removing  to  America.  The  tone  of  morals  then  preva- 
lent in  Holland  was  very  corrupt,  and  the  Puritans  were 
fearful  that  their  children  might  be  contaminated  by  the 
surrounding  influences.  The  New  World  was  then  an  al- 
most unknown  wild,  but  perfect  freedom  and  purity  were 
the  boons  which  tempted  the  adventurers  to  undertake  the 
perilous  voyage.  They  first  selected  Virginia  as  the  spot 
to  which  their  course  should  be  directed.  A  committee 
was  appointed  to  confer  with  the  then  existing  Virginia 
Company,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  liberty  and  religious 
toleration  within  the  limits  of  their  jurisdiction.  Although 
the  company  were  sensible  that  the  Puritans  would  be 
valuable  colonists,  and  desired  them  to  reside  on  their 
territory,  they  could  not  promise  them  absolute  security, 
nor  would  the  prelates  of  the  Anglican  Church  promise 
them  immunity  from  ecclesiastical  interference,  or  perfect 
religious  toleration.  At  length,  however,  the  archbishop 
of  London  promised  "to  connive"  at  their  presence  and 
religious  views  in  Virginia,  and  they  resolved  to  set 
sail.  In  1620  the  preparations  for  their  departure  were 
completed.  As  their  vessels  could  not  convey  all  the 
members  of  the  community,  they  were  divided,  and  a 
portion  of  them  embarked  on  board  the  Mayflower,  while 
the  remainder  waited  for  the  return  of  the  vessel,  to  con- 
vey them  on  the  second  voyage.  The  emigrants  were 
placed  under  the  direction  of  Elder  Brewster,  while 
Robinson  remained  with  the  other  party. 

It  was  at  Delft  Haven  that  Robinson  bestowed  hi<3 
blessing  upon  about  a  hundred  persons  previous  to  their 
embarkation,  who  constituted  this  extraordinary  expedi- 


CONGREGATIONALISTS.  189 

tioia.  He  died  in  1625,  before  he  and  his  associates  could 
accomplish  their  intended  voyage  to  America,  Subse- 
quently a  few  of  them  sailed  for  America,  though  the 
majority  remained  in  Holland.  The  Mayflower  reached 
Plymouth  in  safety,  and  the  intrepid  exiles  disembarked 
upon  a  country  which  they  were  destined  to  render  illus- 
trious by  their  own  virtues  and  those  of  their  descend- 
ants. The  second  Congregational  church  established  in 
the  New  World  was  that  founded  at  Salem,  on  August 
6,  1629.  In  1630  another  church  was  organized  at 
Charlestown.  On  the  30th  of  July,  in  that  year,  the 
governor,  deputy  governor,  and  the  minister,  Mr.  Wilson, 
entered  into  a  "church  covenant."  Several  days  after- 
ward, five  others  joined  them.  At  a  later  period  other 
accessions  were  made  to  the  society,  and  they  then  elected 
Mr.  Wilson  as  their  pastor,  and  ordained  him  to  that 
office.  Emigrants  continued  to  arrive  from  England 
who  sympathized  with  the  Congregationalists  in  their 
opinions,  and  thus  churches  continued  to  be  gradually 
organized  around  the  original  settlers  of  Plymouth.  In 
1633,  Mr.  Cotton  arrived  from  England,  by  whose  means 
the  scriptural  plan  of  church  government  was  developed, 
and  generally  adopted,  which  then  received  the  name,  and 
embodied  the  principles,  of  Congregationalism.  In  this 
the  fellowship  of  the  churches  was  first  fully  developed. 
In  1638  the  Congregationalists  resolved  to  become  inde- 
pendent of  the  mother  country  in  regard  to  the  supply 
of  ministers  for  their  growing  churches,  and  accordingly, 
in  that  year,  they  established  Harvard  College  at  Cam- 
bridge, which  is  the  oldest  literary  institution  in  the 
United  States. 

The  Congregationalist  churches  gradually  extended  over 
the  New  England  colonies.  In  1648  a  synod  was  held,  at 
which  a  system  of  church  order  was  adopted  which  has 


190  CONGREGATIONALIiSTS. 

since  become  widely  known  as  the  Cambridge  Platform. 
It  was  in  1680  that  a  confession  or  oreed  which  had 
been  previously  adopted  by  the  English  Congregational 
Churches  was  examined  and  approved  by  a  synod  as- 
sembled at  Boston,  and  thus  became  the  authoritative 
doctrinal  declaration  of  the  New  England  Congregation- 
alists. It  is  held  by  these  Congregationalists  that  there 
is  no  "  Congregational  Church  "  in  this  or  in  any  country, 
in  the  sense  in  which  the  word  "church"  is  applied  to 
other  sects,  such  as  the  Presbyterian  Church,  or  Metho- 
dist Church.  But  there  is  a  collection  of  Congregational 
churches  in  fellowship  with  each  other  who  constitute 
the  denomination.  The  Congregationalists  define  a  church 
to  be  an  organization  of  professed  believers  statedly  meet- 
ing in  one  place,  and  united  together  by  a  covenant  or 
agreement  mutually  to  watch  over  and  edify  each  other, 
and  for  the  maintenance  of  the  ordinances  of  the  Gospel. 
A  church,  as  thus  understood,  differs  from  a  congregation, 
which  includes  all  those  who  assemble  in  a  place  of  wor- 
ship, non-communicants  as  well  as  communicants.  A 
church  also  differs  from  a  "society,"  which  is  a  legal 
phrase  intended  to  represent  those  persons  who  are  in- 
corporated by  the  law  of  the  land  for  the  purpose  of 
holding  and  transferring  property,  and  providing  for  the 
expenses  of  the  church.  The  church  also  differs  from  the 
"  parish,"  which  last  is  a  term  properly  employed  only  to 
designate  territorial  limits. 

Cougregationalists  insist  upon  the  competence  of  each 
church  to  elect  its  own  officers,  to  regulate  its  own  affairs,  to 
receive  or  reject  candidates  for  membership,  to  pronounce 
censure  upon  any  member  who  is  guilty  of  impropriety, 
and  that  its  allegiance  in  all  these  matters  is  due  to  Christ 
alone.  In  the  administration  of  church  affairs  all  the 
members  have  equal  rights.  Each  male  member  of  full 


CONQREGATIONALIST8.  191 

ago  is  entitled  to  vote  on  all  questions  appertaining  to  the 
intei'ests  of  the  society.  The  internal  structure  of  Con- 
gregational societies  is  of  the  simplest  nature.  Their  only 
officers  are  pastors  and  deacons,  for  the  office  of  ruling 
elder  was  disused  about  the  year  1745,  first  at  Plymouth, 
and  afterward  in  all  the  churches.  The  deacons  are  elected 
from  and  by  the  church  members.  The  pastors  are  chosen 
by  the  members  of  the  church  from  among  those  persons 
who  are  either  already  in  the  ministry,  and  settled  over 
other  churches,  or  are  recommended  by  well-known  clergy- 
men as  fit  to  assume  the  functions  of  the  pastoral  office. 
In  electing  a  pastor,  it  is  usual  for  the  "church"  to  nomi- 
nate a  person  to  the  "  society,"  and,  upon  the  concurrence 
of  the  latter,  to  give  an  invitation  to  the  candidate  to 
settle.  Provision  for  the  support  of  the  pastor  is  made, 
either  by  a  voluntary  subscription,  or  a  tax,  or  from  the 
pew  rents.  When  a  pastor  who  is  selected  accepts  the 
congregation  tendered  him,  he  is  inducted  into  office  by 
a  council  of  ministers,  being  ordained  by  them  if  he  has 
never  before  been  set  apart  to  the  ministry ;  if  otherwise, 
simply  installed.  Each  church  selects  a  clerk,  who  keeps 
their  records,  (and  in  some  churches  a  committee  appointed 
by  the  members  examines  candidates  for  admission,  in  con- 
nection with  the  pastors  and  deacons,  and  has  a  general 
superintendence  over  the  interests  of  the  church.)  The 
pastor  is  the  moderator  of  the  church,  the  spiritual  coun- 
sellor of  its  members,  their  authorized  teacher,  and  has 
full  control  over  the  pulpit,  administers  the  ordinances 
of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  performs  the 
marriage  ceremony.  The  deacons  distribute  the  alms  of 
the  church,  visit  the  sick  and  needy,  and  are  the  counsel- 
lors of  the  minister  whenever  he  desires  the  benefit  of 
their  advice. 

Cougregationalists  believe  in  the  parity  cf  the  ministry, 


192  CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

and  hold  that  there  is  but  one  order  of  ministers.  The 
deacons  they  regard  as  belonging  to  the  laity.  Licentiates 
are  not  ministers,  but  merely  candidates  for  the  sacred 
office.  Those  ministers  who  are  employed  to  preach  to 
churches  from  one  year  to  another,  without  being  installed, 
are  termed  stated  supplies.  The  terms  bishop  and  elde»* 
are  not  often  used  by  Congregationalists,  but  when  they 
are  employed,  they  are  intended  merely  to  represent  the 
pastors.  Excommunication  is  enforced  as  the  penalty 
upon  those  who  make  themselves  amenable  to  church 
discipline  by  irregularities  of  conduct. 

The  liturgy  and  form  of  worship  of  Congregationalists 
are  simple.  The  ordinary  service  of  the  Sabbath  consists 
of  extemporaneous  prayers,  the  singing  of  psalms  and 
hymns,  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  delivery 
of  a  sermon  either  written  or  unwritten.  Although  they 
are  careful  to  preserve  their  congregational  independence, 
yet  they  endeavor  to  promote  sympathy  and  unity  of  aims 
between  their  churches.  Hence  the  pastors  of  neighbor- 
ing church'es  frequently  exchange  pulpits,  and  meet  in 
deliberative  consociations,  in  which,  though  they  have  no 
legislative  or  judicial  power  or  authority,  they  consult  to- 
gether, and  suggest  ways  and  means  of  mutual  usefulness. 
The  fellowship  of  the  churches  is  also  expressed  in  councils 
for  the  ordination  or  dismission  of  pastors,  or  for  advice 
on  questions  of  doctrine  or  practice.  Such  councils  are 
commonly  composed  of  the  nearest  churches,  but  if  occa- 
sion calls  for  it,  distant  churches  can  be  invited.  Councils 
vary  in  size,  being  generally  local,  but  on  special  occasions 
national,  If  a  member  of  the  church  supposes  himself 
aggrieved  by  church  action,  he  has  the  rglit  to  request 
the  church  to  summon  a  council  of  the  pastors  and  dea- 
cons of  neighboring  churches,  to  examine  into  the  facts 
of  his  case  aiid  recommend  such  action  as  may  seem  to 


CONGREGATIONALISTS.  193 

them  just.  If  they  refuse,  he  has  a  right  to  call  an  ex 
parte  council  to  give  information  and  advice.  In  the 
Congregational  system,  the  individual  church  is  the  source 
of  all  ecclesiastical  authority ;  hence  the  action  of  councils 
is  advisory,  and  cannot  interfere  with  the  free  and  absolute 
determination  of  the  aggregate  members  of  any  church  in 
reference  to  the  control  or  decision  of  their  own  affairs. 

The  doctrines  held  by  the  Orthodox  Congregationalists 
are  the  same  in  substance  as  those  taught  in  the  Confession 
of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines  which  convened 
in  1643.  They  are  Calvinistic,  believing  in  absolute  de- 
crees in  reference  to  man's  salvation.  They  are  Psedo- 
baptists,  holding  to  the  right  of  infants  to  be  baptized. 
They  believe  in  man's  total  depravity  by  nature ;  in  the 
trinity,  atonement,  regeneration,  justification  by  faith,  and 
in  the  eternity  of  future  punishment  for  the  finally  im- 
penitent. In  1750,  Unitarian  sentiments  began  to  be  dif- 
fused among  the  Congregationalists  of  New  England.  A 
public  separation  of  such  churches  as  espoused  this  system 
took  place  about  the  year  1815,  but  Unitarian  churches 
everywhere  still  retain  the  Congregational  form  of  church 
government.  Harvard  College  is  under  their  control, 
from  the  divinity  school  of  which  their  candidates  for  the 
ministry  are  sent  forth.  But  these  churches  are  entirely 
distinct  from  the  Orthodox  Congregational  churches,  from 
which  they  originally  sprung,  and  resemble  them  only  in 
the  form  of  their  ecclesiastical  government.  Among  the 
most  eminent  men  whose  names  adorn  the  annals  of  Or- 
thodox Congregationalism  are  those  of  Jonathan  Edwards, 
Timothy  Dwight,  S.  Hopkins  and  Joseph  Bellamy.  The 
denomination  co-operates  efficiently  with  all  the  benevolent 
enterprises  of  the  American  Church,  such  as  the  Ameri- 
can Bible  Society,  American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions, 
Home  Missions,  etc.  The  denomination  occupied  a  verv 


17 


194  CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

prominent  and  eminent  place  for  numbers,  usefulness,  and 
influence,  among  the  various  branches  of  the  American 
Church.  The  Baptist  churches  are  organized  on  Congre- 
gational principles,  (see  p.  37.)  Adding  to  them  all 
other  churches  Congregational  ly  organized,  we  find  in  this 
counlry  and  England  25,000,  and  in  this  country  more 
than  one-half  of  all  the  churches  of  all  names  in  the 
United  States  are  Congregationally  organized,  so  great 
has  been  the  spread  of  Scripture  principles  of  church 
order. 


THE    MORMONS.  195 


THE  MORMONS. 

THE  Mormons,  or  Latter  Day  Saints,  are  a  denomi- 
nation of  recent  origin,  having  been  founded  by  Jo- 
seph Smith  within  the  present  century.  This  remark- 
able man  was  born  at  Sharon,  Windham  County, 
Vermont,  on  the  23d  of  December,  1805.  His  father 
was  a  small  farmer;  and  the  first  ten  years  of  the  life 
of  the  future  prophet  were  spent  at  the  place  of  his 
birth.  In  1815  his  parents  removed  to  Palmyra,  in 
the  State  of  New  York;  and  after  a  period  of  foui 
years  they  again  changed  their  abode  to  Manchester, 
in  the  same  State.  During  this  interval  Joseph  was 
employed  in  the  various  labors  of  agriculture ;  and  hia 
opportunities  for  literary  culture  were  very  limited. 
It  was  with  difficulty  that  he  could  read,  or  write,  or 
perform  the  simplest  processes  of  arithmetic. 

It  was  when  he  was  about  fifteen  years  of  age  that 
Smith  seems  to  have  received  his  first  religious  impres- 
sions. He  professes  to  have  then  examined  into  the 
claims  of  the  various  existing  denominations,  and  to 
have  discovered  such  confusion  and  contradiction 
among  them,  that  he  turned  from  all  of  them  in  dis- 
gust. Then  it  was  that  he  determined  to  put  in  prac- 
tice the  advice  of  St.  James :  "  If  any  man  lack  wis- 
dom, let  him  ask  of  God,  who  giveth  to  all  men 
liberally  and  upbraideth  not,  and  it  shall  be  given 
him."  Accordingly  he  retired  to  a  secret  place  in  a 
grove,  and  began  to  call  upon  the  Lord.  He  declares 
that  he  was  then  favored  with  a  heavenly  vision  ;  that 


198  THE    MOKMONS. 

he  saw  two  glorious  personages,  who  resembled  each 
other  in  form  and  feature,  and  were  surrounded  by  a 
light  brighter  than  that  of  the  sun ;  that  they  informed 
him  that  all  the  existing  sects  were  in  error,  and  had 
wandered  from  the  truth ;  and  that  they  promised  to 
reveal  to  him,  at  some  future  day,  the  Gospel  of  Truth 
in  all  its  fulness,  which  he  should  afterward  proclaim 
with  great  success  throughout  the  world.  He  was  also 
assured  that  he  was  the  chosen  instrument  in  intro- 
ducing this  new  dispensation ;  and  he  was  furnished 
with  mysterious  information  in  reference  to  the  Abori- 
ginal inhabitants  of  this  country. 

Smith  alleged  that  the  promise  of  a  second  vision 
was  fulfilled  in  September,  1823  ;  and  that  while  pray- 
ing, a  personage  appeared  to  him  who  proclaimed  him- 
self the  angel  and  messenger  of  God,  and  informed 
Smith  where  there  were  deposited  a  number  of  golden 
plates,  upon  which  were  written  the  records  of  the 
early  inhabitants  of  this  country,  and  which  narrated 
how  our  Saviour,  after  his  resurrection,  made  his  ap- 
pearance on  this  continent,  and  established  here  hia 
true  religion,  with  the  various  orders  of  priests,  pro- 
phets, and  teachers;  how  the  people  were  all  cut  off  in 
consequence  of  their  sins,  and  the  last  of  their  prophets 
had  been  commanded  to  write  on  those  plates  a  narra- 
tive of  those  events,  and  bury  them,  that  they  might 
afterward  be  found,  and  used  in  the  latter  days  for  the 
establishment  and  universal  diffusion  of  the  true  reli- 
gion in  the  chosen  time. 

These  plates  Smith  alleged  that  he  afterward  ob- 
tained, and  that  they  contain  the  volume  known  as  the 
"Book  of  Mormon."  A  very  different  account  of  the 
origin  of  this  remarkable  production  is  given  by  another 
person,  whose  testimony  is  regarded  by  many  as  un« 


THE    MORMONS.  197 

biased  and  true.  It  is  asserted  that  the  Book  of  Mor- 
mon is  a  religious  romance,  which  was  written  by  a  per- 
son named  Solomon  Spaulding.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  Dartmouth  College,  and  became  a  clergyman,  but 
afterward  relinquished  his  profession,  and  entered  into 
mercantile  pursuits.  He  subsequently  removed  to 
Ohio ;  there  he  wrote  this  book,  and  in  1812  brought 
the  manuscript  to  Pittsburg,  and  offered  it  to  a  pub- 
lisher named  Patterson.  Before  any  arrangement  was 
made  in  reference  to  the  matter,  Spaulding  died.  The 
manuscript  remained  with  Patterson  till  his  death  in 
1826,  when  it  passed  into  the  possession  of  Sidney  Rig- 
don,  by  whose  means  it  came  into  the  hands  of  Joseph 
Smith.  Then  it  was  that  Smith  conceived  the  idea  of 
founding  a  new  religion  based  upon  the  romantic  and 
curious  details  contained  in  this  volume,  in  reference 
to  the  early  history  of  the  Lost  Tribes  of  Israel, 
who  are  represented  as  being  the  ancestors  of  the 
American  Aborigines,  and  other  details.  The  identity 
of  Spaulding's  book  with  the  Book  of  Mormon  was 
supported  by  the  affidavits  of  several  persons  of  un- 
doubted veracity,  who  had  seen  {he  manuscript  of 
Spaulding,  and  afterward  examined  the  Book  of  Mor- 
mon. 

In  whatever  way  Smith  obtained  possession  of  the 
Book  of  Mormon,  it  answered  his  purpose  admirably 
as  a  means  to  aid  in  founding  a  new  sect,  upon  the 
accomplishment  of  which  purpose  he  had  resolved. 
He  proceeded  to  announce  his  divine  mission  as  the 
chosen  apostle  of  a  new  dispensation,  to  his  immediate 
family  and  relations.  His  pretensions  were  at  first 
received  with  derision  and  contempt ;  and  some  time 
elapsed  before  any  of  his  own  family  even  pretended 
to  believe  in  his  claims.  But  his  earnestness  and  zeal 

17* 


198  THE    MORMONS. 

prevailed,  after  a  time;  and  first  one  and  then  another 
of  his  partizans  announced  themselves  as  converts.  The 
first  church  of  the  Latter  Day  Saints  was  organized  in 
the  town  of  Manchester,  in  New  York,  on  the  6th  of 
April,  1830 ;  and  from  that  time  there  commenced 
one  of  the  most  extraordinary  histories  ever  presented 
m  the  annals  of  religion.  The  new  sect  were  imme- 
diately visited  by  persecution,  and  the  indignation  of 
the  public,  at  what  they  regarded  as  an  unparalleled 
instance  of  mingled  impudence  and  fraud,  broke  forth. 
Notwithstanding  these  obstacles,  Smith  continued  to 
preach  zealously,  and  to  gather  around  him  a  number 
of  adherents. 

At  length  the  Mormon  leaders  became  convinced 
that  it  was  for  the  benefit  of  their  cause  for  them  to 
remove  to  a  distant  locality ;  and  accordingly  Smith 
and  his  adherents,  of  whom  Sidney  Rigdon  was  the 
chief,  proceeded  westward,  and  established  themselves, 
after  various  wanderings,  in  Jackson  County,  Mis- 
souri. Here  they  remained  during  four  years,  when 
the  persecutions  of  their  incensed  neighbors  compelled 
them  to  remove.  'Smith  now  selected  a  spot  in  Illi- 
nois which  he  called  Nauvoo,  or  the  New  Jerusalem — 
the  future  home  of  the  saints.  Here  his  followers, 
who  now  numbered  several  thousand,  commenced  in 
April,  1841,  to  erect  dwellings,  public  edifices,  and  a 
temple  of  large  and  imposing  dimensions.  In  two 
years'  time  a  numerous  community  assembled  there,  a 
city  gradually  arose ;  many  missionaries  were  sent 
forth  to  proclaim  the  new  faith ;  journals  were  esta- 
blished ;  and  the  Mormon  community  attained  a  de- 
gree of  prosperity  which  justly  excited  the  astonish- 
ment, while  it  provoked  the  hosiihty  and  resentment, 
of  the  general  public. 


THE    MORMONS.  199 

At  that  period  Nauvoo  contained  fifteen  thousand 
inhabitants.  But  success  rendered  them  quarrelsome, 
and  hostile  factions  arose  among  themselves.  A  party 
opposed  to  Smith  commenced  a  suit  against  him  for 
the  alleged  destruction  of  a  printing  press ;  but  the 
warrant  could  not  be  served  upon  the  prophet  m 
l^auvoo.  He  accordingly  proceeded  to  the  neighbor- 
ing town  of  Carthage  to  surrender  himself  on  the  war- 
rant; but  the  popular  excitement  had  become  so 
intense,  that  on  the  27th  of  June,  1844,  the  jail  was 
Burrounded  by  a  furious  mob,  who  overpowered  the 
guard,  and  eventually  phot  Smith,  and  several  of  his 
associates. 

Some  time  afterward  the  whole  Mormon  commu- 
nity, harrassed  by  the  persecution  to  which  they  were 
continually  subjected,  resolved  to  remove  to  a  new  and 
more  remote  location.  Brigham  Young,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded Smith  in  the  supreme  authority  among  them, 
was  the  leader  in  this  new  exodus;  and  in  the  year 
1847  four  thousand  persons  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes 
reached  Salt  Lake  Valley,  in  Utah,  under  his  guidance. 
There  a  numerous  community  has  since  congregated, 
amounting  perhaps  to  thirty  thousand,  who  now  eon- 
Btitute  the  chief  bulk  of  this  extraordinary  people.  The 
doctrines  which  the  Mormons  entertain  may  be  briefly 
stated  as  follows: 

They  believe  the  Bible  to  be  the  word  of  God,  as  far 
as  it  is  correctly  translated ;  but  at  the  same  time  they 
hold  that  the  Book  of  Mormon  is  also  inspired,  and 
possessed  of  equal  authority.  They  believe  in  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost;  that  all  men  may  be 
saved  through  the  atonement  of  Christ.  They  hold 
that  the  Gospel  ordinances  are  four:  Faith  in  Christ, 
Kepentance,  Baptism  by  immersion,  and  laying  on  of 


PURITANS. 

hands,  for  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  They  believe  in 
the  power  of  miracles,  of  healing,  prophecy,  revelation, 
gift  of  tongues  and  visions  among  the  saints  at  the 
present  time.  They  believe  in  the  literal  gathering  of 
Israel,  the  restoration  of  the  Lost  Ten  Tribes,  and  the 
personal  reign  of  Christ  on  the  earth  during  a  thousand 
years  of  mlllenial  glory,  when  the  saints  will  reign  with 
him,  and  judge  the  Gentiles  and  unbelievers.  They 
practice  polygamy,  and  the  spiritual  wife  system ;  that 
is,  every  wife,  except  the  first,  is  sealed  to  her  husband, 
in  order  thereby  to  obtain  salvation,  inasmuch  as  none 
but  the  saints  and  their  families  will  become  partaker? 
of  heaven  and  the  millenial  glory. 


PURITANS. 

THE  name  Puritans  was  given  in  the  primitive  Church 
totheNovatians,  because  they  would  never  admit  to  com- 
munion any  one  who,  from  dread  of  death,  had  apostatized 
from  the  faith ;  but  the  word  has  been  chiefly  applied  to 
those  who  were  professed  favorers  of  a  further  degree  of 
reformation  and  purity  in  the  Church  before  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  in  1662.  After  this  period,  the  term  Non- 
conformists became  common,  to  which  succeeds  the  ap 
pellation  Dissenter. 

"  During  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  which  the 
royal  prerogative  was  carried  to  its  utmost  limits,  there 
were  found  many  daring  spirits  who  questioned  the  right 
of  the  sovereign  to  prescribe  and  dictate  to  her  subjects 
what  principles  of  religion  they  should  profess,  and  what 
forms  they  ought  to  adhere  to.  The  ornaments  and  habits 


PURITANS. 

worn  by  the  clergy  in  the  preceding  reign,  when  the 
Komish  religion  and  rites  wei  e  triumphant,  Elizabeth  was 
desirous  of  preserving  in  the  ^rotestant  service.  This 
was  the  cause  of  great  discontent  among  a  large  body  of 
her  subjects ;  multitudes  refused  to  attend  at  those  churches 
where  the  habits  and  ceremonies  were  used ;  the  conform- 
ing clergy  they  treated  with  contumely ;  and,  from  the 
superior  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  modes  of  worship  to 
which  they  adhered,  they  obtained  the  name  of  Puritans. 
The  Queen  made  many  attempts  to  repress  everything  that 
appeared  to  her  as  an  innovation  in  the  religion  established 
by  her  authority,  but  without  success ;  by  her  almost  un- 
limited authority  she  readily  checked  open  and  avowed 
opposition,  but  she  could  not  extinguish  the  principles  of 
the  Puritans,  'by  whom  alone,'  according  to  Mr.  Hume, 
'  the  precious  spark  of  liberty  had  been  kindled  and  waa 
preserved,  and  to  whom  the  English  owe  the  whole  freedom 
of  their  constitution.'  Some  secret  attempts  that  had 
been  made  by  them  to  establish  a  separate  congregation 
and  discipline,  had  been  carefully  repressed  by  the  strict 
hand  which  Elizabeth  held  over  all  her  subjects.  The 
most,  therefore,  that  they  could  effect  was  to  assemble  in 
private  houses  for  the  purpose  of  worshipping  God  accord- 
ing to  the  dictates  of  their  own  consciences.  These  prac- 
tices were  at  first  connived  at,  but  afterwards  every  means 
was  taken  to  suppress  them,  and  the  most  cruel  methods 
were  made  use  of  to  discover  persons  who  were  disobedient 
to  the  royal  pleasure. 

The  severe  persecutions  carried  on  against  the  Puritans 
during  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  the  Stuarts,  served  to 
lay  the  foundation  of  a  new  empire  in  the  western  world. 
Thither,  as  into  a  wilderness,  they  fled  from  the  face  of 
their  persecutors,  and,  being  protected  in  the  free  exercise 
of  their  religion,  continued  to  increase,  till  in  about  a  een- 


202  PURITANS. 

tury  and  a  half  they  became  an  independent  nation.  The 
different  principles,  however,  on  which  they  originally 
divided  from  the  Church  establishment  at  home,  operated 
in  a  way  that  might  have  been  expected  when  they  came 
to  the  possession  of  the  civil  power  abroad.  Those  who 
formed  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  having  never 
relinquished  the  principles  of  a  national  Church,  and  of 
the  power  of  the  civil  magistrate  in  matters  of  faith  and 
worship,  were  less  tolerant  than  those  who  settled  at  New 
Plymouth,  at  Rhode  Island,  and  at  Providence  Plantations. 
The  very  men  (and  they  were  good  men  too)  who  had  just 
escaped  the  persecutions  of  the  English  prelates,  now  in 
their  turn  persecuted  others  who  dissented  from  them,  till 
at  length  the  liberal  system  of  toleration  established  in 
the  parent  country  at  the  Revolution,  extending  to  the 
colonies,  in  a  good  measure  put  an  end  to  these  pro- 
ceedings. 

Neither  the  Puritans,  before  the  passing  of  the  Bartho- 
lomew act,  in  1662,  nor  the  Nonconformists,  after  it,  ap- 
pear to  have  disapproved  of  the  articles  of  the  established 
Church  in  matters  of  doctrine.  The  number  of  those  who 
did  so,  however,  was  very  small.  While  the  great  body 
of  the  bishops  and  clergy  had,  from  the  days  of  Archbishop 
Laud,  abandoned  their  own  articles  in  favor  of  Arminian- 
ism,  they  were  attached  to  the  principles  of  the  first  Re- 
formers ;  and  by  their  labors  and  sufferings  the  spirit  of 
the  Reformation  was  kept  alive  in  the  land.  But  after 
the  Revolution,  one  part  of  the  Protestant  Dissenters, 
chiefly  Presbyterians,  first  veered  towards  Arminianism, 
then  revived  the  Arian  controversy,  and  by  degrees  many 
Df  them  settled  in  Socinianism.  At  the  same  time  another 
part  of  them,  chiefly  Independents  and  Baptists,  earnestly 
contending  for  the  doctrines  of  grace,  and  conceiving,  as 
it  would  seem,  that  the  danger  of  erring  lay  entirely  on 


BROWNISTS.  203 

one  side,  first  veered  towards  high  Calvinism ;  then  forbore 
inviting  the  unregenerate  to  repent,  believe,  or  do  any- 
thing practically  good,  and  by  degrees  many  of  them,  it 
is  said,  settled  in  Antinomianism. 

Such  are  the  principles  which  have  found  place  amongst 
the  descendants  of  the  Puritans.  At  the  same  time,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  acknowledged  that  a  goodly  number  of 
each  of  the  three  denominations  have  adhered  to  the  doc- 
trine and  spirit  of  their  forefathers ;  and  have  proved  the 
efficacy  of  their  principles  by  their  concern  to  be  holy  in 
all  manner  of  conversation.  See  articles  BROWNISTS, 
INDEPENDENTS,  and  NONCONFORMISTS,  in  this  work. 


BROWNISTS, 

A  sect  that  arose  among  the  Puritans  towards  the  close 
of  the  sixteenth  century;  so  named  from  their  leader,  Ro- 
bert Brown.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  was  a 
man  of  good  parts  and  some  learning.  He  began  to  inveigh 
openly  against  the  ceremonies  of  the  church,  at  Norwich, 
in  1580 :  but  being  much  opposed  by  the  bishops,  he,  with 
his  congregation,  left  England,  and  settled  at  Middleburgh, 
in  Zealand,  where  they  obtained  leave  to  worship  God  in 
their  own  way,  and  form  a  church  according  to  their  own 
model.  They  soon,  however,  began  to  differ  among  them- 
selves ;  so  that  Brown,  growing  weary  of  his  office,  re- 
turned to  England,  in  1589,  renounced  his  principles  of 
separation,  and  was  preferred  to  the  rectory  of  a  church  in 
Northamptonshire.  He  died  in  prison  in  1630.  The  revolt 
of  Brown  was  attended  with  the  dissolution  of  the  church 
at  Middleburgh  j  but  the  seeds  of  Browuisin  which  he  had 


204  BROWNISTS. 

sown  in  England  were  so  far  from  being  destroyed,  that 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  in  a  speech  in  1592,  computes  no  less 
than  20,000  of  this  sect. 

The  articles  of  their  faith  seem  to  be  nearly  the  same  as 
those  of  the  church  of  England.  The  occasion  of  their 
separation  was  not,  therefore,  any  fault  they  found  with  the 
faith,  but  only  with  the  discipline  and,  form  of  government 
of  the  churches  in  England.  They  equally  charged  cor- 
ruption on  the  Episcopal  and  Presbyterian  forms ;  nor 
would  they  join  with  any  other  reformed  church,  because 
they  were  not  assured  of  the  sanctity  and  regeneration  of 
the  members  that  composed  it.  They  condemned  the  solemn 
celebration  of  marriages  in  the  church,  maintaining  that 
matrimony  being  a  political  contract,  the  confirmation 
thereof  ought  to  come  from  the  civil  magistrate  ;  an  opin- 
ion in  which  they  are  not  singular.  They  would  not  allow 
the  children  of  such  as  were  not  members  of  the  church  to 
be  baptized.  They  rejected  all  forms  of  prayer,  and  held 
that  the  Lord's  prayer  was  not  to  be  recited  as  a  prayer, 
being  only  given  for  a  rule  or  model  whereon  all  our  pray- 
ers are  to  be  formed.  Their  form  of  church  government 
was  nearly  as  follows :  When  a  church  was  to  be  gathered, 
such  as  desired  to  be  members  of  it  made  a  confession  of 
their  faith  in  the  presence  of  each  other,  and  signed  a  cove- 
nant, by  which  they  obliged  themselves  to  walk  together  ia 
the  order  of  the  Gospel.  The  whole  power  of  admitting 
and  excluding  members,  with  the  decision  of  all  controver- 
sies, was  lodged  in  the  brotherhood.  Their  church  officers 
were  chosen  from  among  themselves,  and  separated  to  their 
several  offices  by  fasting,  prayer,  and  imposition  of  hands. 
But  they  did  not  allow  the  priesthood  to  be  any  distinct 
order.  As  the  vote  of  the  brethren  made  a  man  a  minister, 
go  the  same  power  could  discharge  him  from  his  office,  and 
reduce  him  to  a  mere  layman  again ;  and  as  they  main 


BROWNISTS. 

tained  the  bounds  of  a  church  to  be  no  greater  than  what 
could  meet  together  in  one  place,  and  join  in  one  commu- 
nion, so  the  power  of  these  officers  was  prescribed  within 
the  same  limits.  The  minister  of  one  church  could  not 
tt'lminister  the  Lord's  Supper  to  another,  nor  baptize  the 
children  of  any  but  those  of  his  own  society.  Any  lay 
brother  was  allowed  the  liberty  of  giving  a  word  of  exhor- 
tation to  the  people ;  and  it  was  usual  for  some  of  them 
after  sermon  to  ask  questions,  and  reason  upon  the  doc- 
trines that  had  been  preached.  In  a  word,  every  church 
on  their  model  is  a  body  corporate,  having  full  power  to 
do  everything  in  themselves,  without  being  accountable  to 
any  class,  synod,  convocation,  or  other  jurisdiction  what- 
ever. The  reader  will  judge  how  near  the  Independent 
churches  are  allied  to  this  form  of  government.  See  INDE- 
PENDENTS. The  laws  were  executed  with  great  severity  on 
the  Brownists ;  their  books  were  prohibited  by  queen  Eli- 
zabeth, their  persons  imprisoned,  and  some  hanged.  Brown 
himself  declared  on  his  death-bed  that  he  had  been  in  thirty- 
two  different  prisons,  in  some  of  which  he  could  not  see  hia 
hand  at  noon-day.  They  were  so  much  persecuted,  that 
they  resolved  at  last  to  quit  the  country.  Accordingly, 
many  retired  and  settled  at  Amsterdam,  where  they  formed 
a  church,  and  chose  Mr.  Johnson  their  pastor,  and  after 
him,  Mr.  Ainsworth,  author  of  the  learned  Commentary  on 
the  Pentateuch.  Their  church  flourished  near  100  years. 
Among  the  Brownists,  too,  were  the  famous  John  Robin- 
eon,  a  part  of  whose  congregation  from  Leyden,  in  Holland, 
made  the  first  permanent  settlement  in  North  America ; 
and  the  laborious  Canne,  the  author  of  the  marginal  refer- 
ences to  the  Bible. 

18 


206  INDEPENDENTS. 


THE  INDEPENDENTS 

A.RE  a  sect  of  Protestants,  so  called  from  their  maintaining 
that  each  congregation  of  Christians  which  meet  in  one 
house  for  public  worship  is  a  complete  church ;  has  suffi- 
cient power  to  act  and  perform  everything  relating  to  reli- 
gious government  within  itself ;  and  is  in  no  respect  subject 
or  accountable  to  other  churches. 

Though  the  Episcopalians  contend  that  there  is  not  a 
shadow  of  the  independent  discipline  to  be  found  either  in 
the  Bible  or  the  primitive  church,  the  Independents,  on  the 
contrary,  believe  that  it  is  most  clearly  to  be  deduced  from 
the  practice  of  the  apostles  in  planting  the  first  churches 
The  Independents,  however,  were  not  distinguished  as  a 
body  till  the  time  of  queen  Elizabeth.  The  hierarchy  esta- 
blished by  that  princess  in  the  churches  of  her  dominions, 
the  vestments  worn  by  the  clergy  in  the  celebration  of 
divine  worship,  the  book  of  Common  Prayer,  and,  above 
all,  the  sign  of  the  cross  used  in  the  administration  of  bap- 
dsm,  were  very  offensive  to  many  of  her  subjects,  who, 
during  the  persecutions  of  the  former  reign,  had  taken 
refuge  among  the  Protestants  of  Germany  and  Geneva. 
These  men  thought  that  the  church  of  England  resembled 
in  too  many  particulars  the  anti-christian  church  of  Rome; 
they  therefore  called  perpetually  for  a  more  thorough  re- 
formation, and  a  purer  worship.  From  this  circumstance 
they  were  stigmatized  with  the  general  name  of  Puritans, 
as  the  followers  of  Novatian  had  been  in  the  ancient  church 
Elizabeth  was  not  disposed  to  comply  with  their  demands 
and  it  is  difficult  to  say  what  might  have  been  the  issue  of 
the  contest,  had  the  Puritans  been  united  among  them 


INDEPENDENTS.  2(J7 

selves  in  sentiments,  views,  and  measures.  But  the  case 
was  quite  otherwise :  that  large  body,  composed  of  persona 
of  different  ranks,  character,  opinions,  and  intentions,  and 
unanimous  in  nothing  but  their  antipathy  to  the  Esta- 
blished Church,  was  all  of  a  sudden  divided  into  a  variety  of 
sects.  Of  these  the  most  famous  was  that  which  was  formed 
about  the  year  1581,  by  Robert  Brown,  a  man  insinuating 
in  his  manners,  but  unsteady  and  inconsistent  in  his  vievs 
and  actions  of  men  and  things.  Brown  was  for  dividing 
the  whole  body  of  the  faithful  into  separate  societies  or 
congregations  ;  and  maintained  that  such  a  number  of  per- 
sons as  could  be  contained  in  an  ordinary  place  of  worship 
ought  to  be  considered  as  a  church,  and  enjoy  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  that  are  competent  to  an  ecclesiastical  com- 
munity. These  small  societies  he  pronounced  independent, 
jure  divino,  and  entirely  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  bishop,  in  whose  hands  the  court  had  placed  the  reins 
of  a  spiritual  government :  and  also  from  that  of  presby 
teries  and  synods,  which  the  Puritans  regarded  as  the 
supreme  visible  sources  of  ecclesiastical  authority.  But  as 
we  have  given  an  account  of  the  general  opinions  and  dis- 
cipline of  the  Brownists,  we  need  not  enumerate  them  here, 
but  must  beg  the  reader  to  refer  to  that  article.  The  zeal 
with  which  Brown  and  his  associates  maintained  and  pro- 
pagated his  notions,  was,  in  a  high  degree,  intemperate  and 
extravagant.  He  affirmed  that  all  communion  was  to  be 
broken  off  with  those  religious  societies  tb-at  were  founded 
upon  a  different  plan  from  his ;  and  treated  more  especially 
t,us  church  of  England  as  a  spurious  church,  whose  minis- 
ters were  unlawfully  ordained  ;  whose  discipline  was  popish 
and  anti-christian ;  and  whose  sacraments  and  institutions 
were  destitute  of  all  efficacy  and  virtue.  His  followers  not 
being  able  to  endure  the  severe  treatment  which  they  met 
with  from  an  administration  that  was  not  distinguished  for 


•203 


INDEPENDENTS. 


ks  mildness  and  indulgence,  retired  into  the  Netherlands, 
*nd  founded  churches  at  Middlebourg,  Amsterdam,  and 
Leyden.  Their  founder,  however,  returned  into  England, 
renounced  his  principles  of  separation,  and  took  orders  in 
the  Established  Church.  The  Puritan  exiles,  whom  he  thus 
abandoned,  disagreed  among  themselves,  were  split  into 
parties,  and  their  affairs  declined  from  day  to  day.  This 
engaged  the  wiser  part  of  them  to  mitigate  the  severity 
of  their  founder's  plan,  and  to  soften  the  rigor  of  his  un- 
charitable  decisions. 

The  person  who  had  the  chief  merit  of  bringing  about 
this  reformation  was  one  of  their  pastors,  of  the  name  of 
Robinson,  a  man  who  had  much  of  the  solemn  piety  of  the 
times,  and  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  learning.  This 
distinguished  reformer,  perceiving  the  defects  that  reigned 
m  the  discipline  of  Brown,  and  in  the  spirit  and  temper 
of  his  followers,  employed  his  zeal  and  diligence  in  correct- 
ing them,  and  in  new-modelling  the  society  in  such  a  man- 
ner, as  to  render  it  less  odious  to  his  adversaries,  and  less 
liable  to  the  just  censure  of  those  true  Christians  who  look 
upon  charity  as  the  end  of  the  commandments.  Hitherto 
the  sect  had  been  called  Brownists  ;  but  Robinson  having 
in  his  apology  affirmed  that  all  Christian  congregations 
were  so  many  independent  religious  societies,  that  had  a 
right  to  be  governed  by  their  own  laws,  independent  of  any 
further  or  foreign  jurisdiction,  the  sect  was  first  called 
Independents,  afterward  Congregationalists,  of  which  the 
ipologist  was  considered  as  the  founder. 

The  first  independent  or  congregational  church  in  Eng- 
land was  established  by  a  Mr.  Jacob,  in  the  year  1616. 
Mr.  Jacob,  who  had  fled  from  the  persecution  of  Bishop 
Bancroft,  going  to  Holland,  and  having  imparted  his 
design  of  setting  up  a  separate  congregation,  like  those  in 
Holland,  to  the  most  learned  Puritans  of  those  times,  it 


INDEPENDENTS.  209 

was  not  condemned  as  unlawful,  considering  there  was  no 
prospect  of  a  national  reformation.  Mr.  Jacob,  therefore, 
having  summoned  several  of  his  friends  together,  and 
having  obtained  their  consent  to  unite  in  church  fellow- 
ship for  enjoying  the  ordinances  of  Christ  in  the  purest 
manner,  they  laid  the  foundation  of  the  first  independent 
church  in  England  in  the  following  way :  Having  observed 
a  day  of  solemn  fasting  and  prayer  for  a  blessing  upon 
their  undertaking,  towards  the  close  of  the  solemnity,  each 
of  them  made  an  open  confession  of  their  faith  in  Christ ; 
and  then,  standing  together,  they  joined  hands,  and 
solemnly  covenanted  with  each  other,  in  the  presence  of 
Almighty  God,  to  walk  together  in  all  God's  way  and 
ordinances,  according  as  he  had  already  revealed,  or  should 
further  make  known  to  them.  Mr.  Jacob  was  then  chosen 
pastor  by  the  suffrage  of  the  brotherhood  ;  and  others  were 
appointed  to  the  office  of  deacons,  with  fasting  and  prayer, 
and  imposition  of  hands. 

The  Independents  were  much  more  commendable  than 
the  Brownists ;  they  surpassed  them,  both  in  the  modera- 
tion of  their  sentiments,  and  in  the  order  of  their  discipline. 
They  did  not,  like  Brown,  pour  forth  bitter  and  unchari- 
table invectives  against  the  churches  which  were  governed 
by  rules  entirely  different  from  theirs,  nor  pronounce  them, 
on  that  account,  unworthy  of  the  Christian  name.  On 
che  contrary,  though  they  considered  their  own  form  of 
ecclesiastical  government  as  of  Divine  institution,  and  as 
originally  introduced  by  the  authority  of  the  apostles, 
nay,  by  the  apostles  themselves,  they  had  yet  candor  and 
charity  enough  to  acknowledge  that  true  religion  and  solid 
piety  might  flourish  in  those  communities  which  were  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  or  the  government  of  synoda 
and  presbyteries.  They  were  also  much  more  attentive 
than  the  Brownists  in  keeping  on  foot  a  regular  ministry 
is»  o 


210  INDEPENDENTS. 

in  their  communities;  for,  while  the  latter  allowed  promis 
cuously  all  ranks  and  orders  of  men  to  teach  in  public, 
*'he  Independents  had,  and  still  have,  a  certain  number  of 
ministers,  chosen  respectively  by  the  congregations  where 
they  are  fixed :  nor  is  it  common  for  any  person  among 
them  to  speak  in  public  before  he  has  submitted  to  a 
proper  examination  of  his  capacity  and  talents,  and  been 
approved  of  by  the  heads  of  the  congregation. 

From  1642,  the  Independents  are  very  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  English  annals.  The  charge  alleged  against 
them  by  Rapin,  (in  his  History  of  England,  vol  ii  p.  114, 
folio  edition,)  that  they  could  not  so  much  as  endure 
ordinary  ministers  in  the  church,  &c.,  is  groundless.  He 
was  led  into  this  mistake  by  confounding  the  Independents 
with  the  Brownists.  Other  charges,  no  less  unjustifiable, 
have  been  urged  against  the  Independents  by  this  cele- 
brated historian  and  others.  Rapin  says,  that  they  ab- 
horred monarchy  and  approved  of  a  republican  govern- 
ment: this  might  have  been  true  with  regard  to  many 
persons  among  them,  in  common  with  other  sects ;  but  it 
does  not  appear,  from  any  of  their  public  writings,  that 
republican  principles  formed  their  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic ;  on  the  contrary,  in  a  public  memorial  drawn  up 
by  them  in  1647,  they  declare  that  they  do  not  disapprove 
of  any  form  of  civil  government,  but  do  freely  acknowledge 
that  a  kingly  government,  bounded  by  just  and  wholesome 
laws,  is  allowed  by  God,  and  also  a  good  accommodation 
unto  men.  The  Independents,  however,  have  been  gene- 
rally ranked  among  the  regicides,  and  charged  with  the 
death  of  Charles  I.  Whether  this  fact  be  admitted  or 
denied,  no  conclusion  can  be  fairly  drawn  from  the  greater 
prevalence  of  republican  principles,  or  frcm  violent  pro- 
ceedings at  that  period,  that  can  affect  tLe  distinguishing 
tenets  and  conduct  of  the  Independents  i  i  our  times.  It 


INDEPENDENTS.  211 

is  certain  that  the  present  Independents  are  steady  fiienda 
to  a  limited  monarchy.  Rapin  is  further  mistaken  when  he 
represents  the  religious  principles  of  the  English  Indepen- 
dents as  contrary  to  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  It 
appears  from  two  confessions  of  faith,  one  composed  by 
Robinson,  in  behalf  of  the  English  Independents  in  Hol- 
land, and  published  at  Leyden,  in  1619,  entitled,  Apologia 
pro  Exulibus  Anglis,  qui  Brownistse  vulgo  appcllantur ; 
and  another  drawn  up  in  London,  in  1658,  by  the  princi- 
pal members  of  their  community  in  England,  entitled,  "A 
Declaration  of  the  Faith  and  Order  owned  and  practised 
by  the  Congregational  Churches  in  England,  agreed  upon 
and  consented  unto  by  their  Elders  and  Messengers,  in 
their  meeting  at  the  Savoy,  October  12th,  1658,"  as  well 
as  from  other  writings  of  the  Independents,  that  they 
differed  from  the  rest  of  the  reformed  in  no  single  point 
of  any  consequence,  except  that  of  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment ;  and  their  religious  doctrines  were  almost  entirely 
the  same  with  those  adopted  by  the  church  of  Geneva. 
During  the  administration  of  Cromwell,  the  Independents 
acquired  very  considerable  reputation  and  influence ;  and 
he  made  use  of  them  as  a  check  to  the  ambition  of  the 
Presbyterians,  who  aimed  at  a  very  high  degree  of  eccle 
siastical  power,  and  who  had  succeeded,  soon  after  the 
elevation  of  Cromwell,  in  obtaining  a  parliamentary  estab- 
lishment of  their  own  church  government.  But  after  the 
restoration,  their  cause  declined  ;  and  in  1691  they  entered 
into  an  association  with  the  Presbyterians  residing  in  and 
about  London,  comprised  in  nine  articles,  that  tended  to 
the  maintenance  of  their  respective  institutions.  These 
may  be  found  in  the  second  volume  of  Whiston's  Memoirs, 
and  the  substance  of  them  in  Mosheim.  At  this  time  the 
Independents  and  Presbyterians,  called  from  this  associa- 
tion the  United  Brethren,  were  agreed  with  regard  to 


212  INDEPENDENTS. 

doctrines,  being  generally  Calvinists,  and  differed  only 
with  respect  to  ecclesiastical  discipline.  Independentisra 
is  peculiar  to  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and  the 
Netherlands.  It  was  carried  first  to  the  American  colo- 
nies in  1620,  and  by  successive  Puritan  emigrants,  in 
1629  and  1633,  from  England,  and  there  developed  more 
fully  the  fellowship  of  the  churches,  and  was  called  Con- 
gregationalism. One  Morel,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
endeavored  to  introduce  it  into  France ;  but  it  was  con- 
demned at  the  synod  of  Rochelle,  where  Beza  presided  ; 
and  again  at  the  synod  of  Rochelle,  in  1644. 

Many  of  the  Independents  reject  the  use  of  all  creeds 
and  confessions  drawn  up  by  fallible  men,  though  they 
require  of  their  teachers  a  declaration  of  their  belief  in. 
the  Gospel  and  its  various  doctrines,  and  their  adherence 
to  the  Scriptures  as  the  sole  standard  of  faith  and  prac- 
tice. They  attribute  no  virtue  whatever  to  the  right  of 
ordination,  upon  which  some  other  churches  lay  so  much 
stress.  According  to  them,  the  qualifications  which  con- 
stitute a  regular  minister  of  the  New  Testament,  are,  a 
firm  belief  in  the  Gospel,  a  principle  of  sincere  and  unaf- 
fected piety,  a  competent  stock  of  knowledge,  a  capacity 
for  leading  devotion  and  communicating  instruction,  a 
serious  inclination  to  engage  in  the  important  employment 
of  promoting  the  everlasting  salvation  of  mankind,  and 
ordinarily  an  invitation  to  the  pastoral  office  from  some 
particular  society  of  Christians.  Where  these  things  con- 
cur, they  consider  a  person  as  fitted  and  authorized  for 
the  discharge  of  every  duty  which  belongs  to  the  minis- 
terial function ;  and  they  believe  that  the  imposition  of 
hands  of  bishops  or  presbyters  would  convey  to  him  no 
powers  or  prerogatives  of  which  he  was  not  before  pos- 
sessed. But  though  they  attribute  no  virtue  to  ordination, 
as  conveying  any  new  powers,  yet  they  hold  with  and 


INDEPENDENTS.  213 

practise  it.  Many  of  them,  indeed,  suppose  that  the 
essence  of  ordination  does  not  lie  in  the  act  of  the  minis- 
ters who  assist,  but  in  the  choice  and  call  of  the  people, 
and  the  candidate's  acceptance  of  that  calf;  so  that  their 
ordination  may  be  considered  only  as  a  public  declaration 
of  that  agreement.  They  consider  it  as  their  right  to 
choose  their  own  ministers  and  deacons.  They  own  no 
man  as  head  of  the  church.  They  disallow  of  parochial 
and  provincial  subordination ;  but  though  they  do  not 
think  it  necessary  to  assemble  synods,  yet,  if  any  be  held, 
they  look  upon  their  resolutions  as  prudential  counsels, 
but  not  as  decisions  to  which  they  are  obliged  to  conform. 
They  consider  the  Scriptures  as  the  only  criterion  of 
truth.  Their  worship  is  conducted  in  a  decent,  piain,  and 
simple  manner,  without  the  ostentation  of  form,  and  the 
vain  pomp  of  ceremony. 

The  congregations  of  the  Independents  are  very  nume- 
rous, both  in  England  and  America,  and  generally  very 
respectable.  This  denomination  has  produced  many  cha- 
racters as  eminent  for  learning  and  piety  as  any  church  in 
Christendom ;  whose  works,  no  doubt,  will  reflect  lasting 
honor  on  their  characters  3«ad  abilities. 


214  NEONOMIANS 


NEONOMIANS. 

• 

NEONOMIANS,  so  called  from  the  Greek  VEOS,  new,  and 
s,  law,  signifying  new  law,  the  condition  whereof  is  im- 
perfect, though  sincere  and  persevering  obedience. 

Neonomianism  seems  to  be  an  essential  part  of  the  Armi- 
nian  system.  "  The  new  covenant  of  grace  which,  through 
the  medium  of  Christ's  death,  the  Father  made  with  men, 
consists,  according  to  this  system,  not  in  our  being  justi- 
fied by  faith,  as  it  apprehends  the  righteousness  of  Christ; 
but  in  this,  that  God,  abrogating  the  exaction  of  perfect 
legal  obedience,  reputes  or  accepts  of  faith  itself,  and  the 
imperfect  obedience  of  faith,  instead  of  the  perfect  obe- 
dience of  the  law,  and  graciously  accounts  them  worthy  of 
the  reward  of  eternal  life."  This  opinion  was  examined  at 
the  synod  of  Dort,  and  has  been  canvassed  between  the 
Calviriists  and  Arminians  on  various  occasions. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  a  contro- 
versy was  agitated  amongst  the  English  Dissenters,  in 
which  the  one  side,  who  were  partial  to  the  writings  of  Dr. 
Crisp,  were  charged  with  Antinomianism,  and  the  other, 
who  favored  Mr.  Baxter,  were  accused  of  Neonomianism. 
Mr.  Daniel  Williams,  who  was  a  principal  writer  on  what 
was  called  the  Neonomian  side,  after  many  things  had  been 
said,  gives  the  following  as  a  summary  of  his  faith  in  refe- 
rence to  those  subjects. — 1.  God  has  eternally  elected  a 
certain  definite  number  of  men  whom  he  will  infallibly  save 
by  Christ  in  that  way  prescribed  by  the  Gospel.  2.  These 
very  elect  are  riot  personally  justified  until  ihey  receive 
Christ,  and  yield  up  themselves  to  him,  but  they  remain 
condemned  whilst  unconverted  to  Christ.  3.  By  the  min- 
istry of  the  Gospel  there  is  a  serious  ofi'er  of  pardon  anil 


NEONOMIANS.  213 

glory,  upon  the  terms  of  the  Gospel,  to  all  that  hear  it ; 
and  God  thereby  requires  them  to  comply  with  the  said 
terms.  4.  Ministers  ought  to  use  these  and  other  Gospel 
benefits  as  motives,  assuring  men  that  if  they  believe  they 
shall  be  justified  ;  if  they  turn  to  God,  they  shall  live  ;  if 
they  repent,  their  sins  shall  be  blotted  out ;  and  whilst  they 
neglect  these  duties,  they  cannot  have  a  personal  interest 
in  these  respective  benefits.  5.  It  is  by  the  power  of  the 
Spirit  of  Christ  freely  exerted,  and  not  by  the  power  of 
free-will,  that  the  Gospel  becomes  effectual  for  the  conver- 
sion of  any  soul  to  the  obedience  of  faith.  6.  When  a  man 
believes,  yet  it  is  not  that  very  faith,  and  much  less  any 
other  work,  the  matter  of  that  righteousness  for  which  a 
sinner  is  justified,  i.  e.,  entitled  to  pardon,  acceptance,  and 
eternal  glory,  as  righteous  before  God ;  and  it  is  the  im- 
puted righteousness  of  Christ  alone,  for  which  the  Gospel 
gives  the  believer  a  right  to  these  and  all  saving  blessings, 
who  in  this  respect  is  justified  by  Christ's  righteousness 
alone.  By  both  this  and  the  fifth  head  it  appears  that  all 
boasting  is  excluded,  and  we  are  saved  by  free  grace.  7. 
Faith  alone  receives  the  Lord  Jesus  and  his  righteousness, 
and  the  subject  of  this  faith  is  a  convinced,  penitent  soul; 
hence  we  are  justified  by  faith  alone,  and  yet  the  impeni- 
tent are  not  forgiven.  8.  God  has  freely  promised  that  all 
whom  he  predestinated  to  salvation  shall  not  only  Savingly 
believe,  but  that  he  by  his  power  shall  preserve  them  from 
a  total  or  &  final  apostasy.  9.  Yet  the  believer,  whilst  ho 
lives  in  this  world,  is  to  pass  the  time  of  his  sojourning 
here  with  fear,  because  his  warfare  is  not  accomplished, 
and  that  it  is  true  that,  if  he  draw  back,  God  will  have  no 
nleasure  in  him.  Which  with  the  like  cautions  God  blesseib. 
as  means  to  the  saints'  perseverance,  arid  these  by  minis- 
ters should  be  so  urged.  10.  The  law  of  innocence,  or 
oiorai  law,  is  so  in  force  still,  as  that  every  precept  there- 


216  NEONOMTANS. 

of  constitutes  duty,  even  to  the  believer :  every  breach 
thereof  is  a  sin  deserving  of  death :  this  law  binds  death 
by  its  curse  on  every  unbeliever,  and  the  righteousness  for 
or  by  which  we  are  justified  before  God,  is  a  righteousness 
('at  least)  adequate  to  that  law  which  is  Christ's  alone  right- 
eousness ;  and  this  so  imputed  to  the  believer  as  that  God 
deals  judicially  with  him  according  thereto.  11.  Yet  such 
is  the  grace  of  the  Gospel,  that  it  promiseth  in  and  by 
Christ  a  freedom  from  the  curse,  forgiveness  of  sin,  and 
eternal  life,  to  every  sincere  believer ;  which  promise  God 
will  certainly  perform,  notwithstanding  the  threatening  of 
the  law." 

Dr.  Williams  maintains  the  conditionality  of  the  cove- 
nant of  grace  ;  but  admits  with  Dr.  Owen,  who  also  uses  the 
term  condition,  that  "  Christ  undertook  that  those  who  were 
to  be  taken  into  this  covenant  should  receive  grace  enabling 
them  to  comply  with  the  terms  of  it,  fulfil  its  conditions, 
and  yield  the  obedience  which  God  required  therein." 

On  this  subject  Dr.  Williams  further  says,  "  The  ques- 
tion is  not  whether  the  first  (viz.,  regenerating)  grace,  by 
which  we  are  enabled  to  perform  the  condition,  be  abso- 
lutely given.  This  I  affirm,  though  that  be  dispensed  ordi- 
narily in  a  due  use  of  means,  and  in  a  way  discountenancing 
idleness,  and  fit  encouragement  given  to  the  use  of  means." 

The  following  objection,  among  others,  was  made  by 
several  ministers  in  1692,  against  Dr.  William's  Gf-ospel 
Truth  Stated,  &c.  "  To  supply  the  room  of  the  moral  law, 
vacated  by  him,  he  turns  the  Gospel  into  a  new  law,  in 
keeping  of  which  we  shall  be  justified  for  the  sake  of  Christ's 
righteousness,  making  qualifications  and  acts  of  ours  a  dis- 
posing subordinate  righteousness,  whereby  we  become 
capable  of  being  justified  by  Christ's  righteousness." 

To  this,  among  other  things,  he  answers,  "  The  differ- 
ence is  not,  1.  Whether  the  Gospel  be  a  new  law  in  the 


NONCONFORMISTS.  217 

Socinian,  Popish,  or  Arminian  sense.  This  I  deny.  Nor, 
2.  Is  faith,  or  any  other  grace  or  act  of  ours,  any  atone- 
ment for  sin,  satisfaction  to  justice,  meriting  qualification, 
or  any  part  of  that  righteousness  for  which  we  are  justified 
at  God  our  Creator's  bar.  This  I  deny  in  places  innume- 
rable. Nor,  3.  Whether  the  Gospel  be  a  law  more  ncvr 
than  is  implied  in  the  first  promise  to  fallen  Adam,  pro- 
posed to  Cain,  and  obeyed  by  Abel,  to  the  differencing  him 
from  his  unbelieving  brother.  This  I  deny.  4.  Nor  whether 
the  Gospel  be  a  law  that  allows  sin,  when  it  accepts  such 
graces  as  true,  though  short  of  perfection,  to  be  the  condi- 
tions of  our  personal  interest  in  the  benefits  purchased  by 
Christ.  This  I  deny.  5.  Nor  whether  the  Gospel  be  a 
law,  the  promises  whereof  entitle  the  performers  of  its 
conditions  to  the  benefits  as  of  debt.  This  I  deny. 

He  goes  on  to  say  th  <t  the  real  difference  is,  that  the 
Gospel  is  a  law,  as  commanding  repentance,  and  promising 
pardon  to  obedience,  and  threatening  punishment  to  dis- 
obedience. 


NONCONFORMISTS. 

THIS  sect  is  remarkable  as  having  once  included  some 
of  the  ablest,  most  eloquent  and  pious  clergymen  in  England. 
The  Nonconformists  were  those  who  at  certain  periods  re- 
fused to  join  the  established  church  of  England.  Those  in 
England  may  be  considered  of  three  parts :  1.  Such  as  absent 
themselves  from  Divine  worship  in  the  established  church 
through  total  irreligion,  and  attend  the  service  of  no  other 
persuasion.  2.  Such  as  absent  themselves  on  the  plea  of 
conscience  ;  as  Presbyterians,  Independents,  Baptists,  etc. 
3.  Internal  Nonconformists,  or  unprincipled  clergymen, 

19 


218  NONCONFORMISTS. 

who  applaud  and  propagate  doctrines  quite  inconsistent 

with  several  of  those  articles  they  promised  on  oath  to 
defend.     The  word  is  generally  used  in  reference  to  those 
ministers  who  were  ejected  from  their  livings  by  the  Act 
of  Uniformity,  in  1662.     The  number  of  these  was  about 
two  thousand.     However  some  affect  to  treat  these  men 
with  indifference,  and  suppose  that  their  consciences  were 
more  tender  than  they  need  be,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  they  were  men  of  as  extensive  learning,  great  abili- 
ties, and  pious  conduct,  as  ever  appeared.     Mr.  Locke,  if 
his  opinion  have  any  weight,  calls  them  "worthy,  learned, 
pious,  orthodox  divines,  who  did  not  throw  themselves  out 
of  service,  but  were  forcibly  ejected."     Mr.  Bogue  thus 
draws  their  character :  "As  to  their  public  ministration," 
he  says,  "they  were  orthodox,  experimental,  serious,  affec- 
tionate, regular,  faithful,  able,  and  popular  preachers.    As 
to  their  moral  qualities,  they  were  devout  and  holy ;  faith- 
ful to  Christ  and  the  souls  of  men ;  wise  and  prudent ;  of 
great  liberality  and  kindness ;  and  strenuous  advocates  for 
liberty,  civil  and  religious.     As  to  their  intellectual  quali- 
ties, they  were  learned,  eminent,  and  laborious."     These 
men  were  driven  from  their  houses,  from  the  society  of 
their   friends,   and   exposed   to    the   greatest   difficulties. 
Their  burdens  were  greatly  increased  by  the  Conventicle 
Act,  whereby  they  were  prohibited  from  meeting  for  any 
exercise  of  religion  (above  five  in  number)  in  any  other 
manner  than  allowed  by  the  liturgy  or  practice  of  the 
Church  of  England.     For  the  first  offence  the  penalty  was 
three  months'  imprisonment,  or  pay  five  pounds ;  for  the 
second  offence,  six  months'  imprisonment,  or  ten  pounds ; 
and  for  the  third  offence,  to  be  banished  to  some  of  the 
American  plantations  for  seven  years,  or  pay  one  hundred 
pounds ;  and  in  case  they  returned,  to  suffer  death  without 
benefit  of  clergy.     By  virtue  of  this  act,  the  jails  wero 


NONCONFORMISTS.  219 

quickly  filled  with  dissenting  Protestants,  and  the  trade 
of  an  informer  was  very  gainful.  So  great  was  the  seve- 
rity of  these  times,  says  Neale,  that  they  were  afraid  to 
pray  in  their  families,  if  above  four  of  their  acquaintance, 
who  came  only  to  visit  them,  were  present.  Some  families 
scrupled  asking  a  blessing  on  their  meat,  if  five  strangers 
were  at  table. 

But  this  was  not  all  (to  say  nothing  of  the  Test  Act). 
In  1665,  an  act  was  brought  into  the  House  to  banish 
them  from  their  frien4s,  commonly  called  the  Oxford  Five 
Mile  Act,  by  which  all  dissenting  ministers,  on  the  penalty 
of  forty  pounds,  who  would  not  take  an  oath  (that  it  was 
not  lawful,  upon  any  pretence  whatever,  to  take  arms 
against  the  king,  etc.),  were  prohibited  from  coming  within 
five  miles  of  any  city,  town  corporate,  or  borough,  or  any 
place  where  they  had  exercised  their  ministry,  and  from 
teaching  any  school.  Some  few  took  the  oath ;  others 
could  not,  and  consequently  suffered  the  penalty. 

In  1673,  "the  mouths  of  the  high  church  pulpiteers 
were  encouraged  to  open  as  loud  as  possible.  One,  in  hia 
bermon  before  the  House  of  Commons,  told  them  that  the 
Nonconformists  ought  not  to  be  tolerated,  but  to  be  cured 
by  vengeance.  He  urged  them  to  set  fire  to  the  faggot, 
and  to  teach  them  by  scourges  or  scorpions,  and  open  their 
eyes  with  gall." 

Such  were  the  dreadful  consequences  of  this  intolerant 
spirit,  that  it  is  supposed  near  eight  thousand  died  in  pri- 
son in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  It  is  said  that  Mr.  Jere- 
iniah  White  had  carefully  collected  a  list  of  those  who  had 
suffered  between  Charles  II.  and  the  revolution,  which 
amounted  to  sixty  thousand.  The  same  persecutions  were 
carried  on  in  Scotland ;  and  there,  as  well  as  in  England, 
many,  to  avoid  persecution,  fled  from  their  country. 

But,  notwithstanding  all  these  dreadful  and  furious  at- 
tacks upon  the  Dissenters,  they  were  not  extirpated.  Their 


220  NONCONFORMISTS. 

very  persecution  was  in  their  favor.  The  infamous  char 
acters  of  their  informers  and  persecutors;  their  piety, 
zeal,  and  fortitude,  no  doubt,  had  influence  on  considerate 
minds ;  and,  indeed,  they  had  additions  from  the  esta- 
blished church,  which  "  several  clergymen  in  this  reign 
deserted  as  a  persecuting  church,  and  took  their  lot  among 
them."  In  addition  to  this,  King  James  suddenly  altered 
his  measures,  granted  a  universal  toleration,  and  preferred 
Dissenters  to  places  of  trust  and  profit,  though  it  was  evi- 
dently with  a  view  to  restore  Popery. 

King  William  coming  to  the  throne,  the  famous  Tolera- 
tion Act  passed,  by  which  they  were  exempted  from  suffer- 
ing the  penalties  before  mentioned,  and  permission  given 
them  to  worship  God  according  to  the  dictates  of  their 
own  consciences.  In  the  latter  end  of  Queen  Anne's 
reign,  they  began  to  be  a  little  alarmed.  An  act  of  Par 
liament  passed,  called  the  Occasional  Conformity  Bill, 
which  prevented  any  person  in  office  under  the  government 
entering  into  a  meeting-house.  Another,  called  the  Schism 
Bill,  had  actually  obtained  the  royal  assent,  which  suffered 
no  Dissenters  to  educate  their  own  children,  but  required 
them  to  be  put  into  the  hands  of  Conformists ;  and  which 
forbade  all  tutors  and  schoolmasters  being  present  at  any 
conventicle,  or  dissenting  place  of  worship ;  but  the  very 
day  this  iniquitous  act  was  to  have  taken  effect,  the  Queen 
died  (August  1,  1714). 

But  George  I.,  being  fully  satisfied  that  these  hardships 
were  brought  upon  the  Dissenters  for  their  steady  adhe- 
rence to  the  Protestant  succession  in  his  illustrious  house, 
against  a  Tory  and  Jacobite  ministry  who  were  paving  the 
way  for  a  Popish  pretender,  procured  the  repeal  of  them 
in  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign;  though  a  clause  was  left 
that  forbade  the  mayor  or  other  magistrate  to  go  into  any 
meeting  for  religious  worship  with  the  ensigns  of  his  office. 


HUGUENOTS.  221 


HUGUENOTS. 

THIS  term,  which  was  applied  to  the  Protestants  in 
France  in  contempt,  is  of  uncertain  origin.  In  public 
documents,  they  were  styled  Ceux  de  la  religion  pretendue 
rtformee,  or  Religionnaires. 

The  principles  of  Luther  and  Zwinglius  had  gained  an 
entrance  into  France,  during  the  reign  of  Francis  I. 
(1515-47).  The  doctrines  of  Calvin  spread  still  more 
widely,  although  Francis  endeavored  to  suppress  tLem  by 
prohibiting  Calvinistic  books,  and  by  penal  laws,  and,  in 
Borne  instances,  by  capital  punishments. 

Under  Henry  II.,  the  successor  of  Francis,  these  doc- 
trines made  greater  progress,  in  proportion  as  they  were 
more  violently  persecuted.  The  opinions  and  influence  of 
Queen  Margaret  of  Navarre  had  no  small  share  in  this 
extension,  and  the  parties  at  court  contributed  much  to 
the  bloody  persecution  of  the  Protestants.  One  party 
wished  to  enrich  themselves  by  the  estates  of  the  heretics, 
who  were  executed  or  banished,  and  the  other  to  gain  the 
favor  of  the  people  by  their  punishment.  The  parties  of 
the  Bourbons  and  of  the  five  princes  of  Guise,  under  the 
government  of  the  weak  Francis  II.,  made  use  of  this  re- 
ligious dispute,  in  order  to  advance  their  own  political 
ends. 

The  Bourbons  belonged  to  the  Protestant  party ;  and 
the  Guises,  in  order  to  weaken,  and,  if  possible,  to  destroy 
their  rivals,  continued  the  persecution  of  the  heretics  with 
fanatical  fury.  In  every  parliament  there  was  a  chamber 
established  to  examine  and  punish  the  Protestants,  called 
by  the  people  the  burning  chamber  (chambre  ardente\ 

19  » 


222  HUGUENOTS. 

because  all  convicted  of  heresy  were  burnt.  The  estates 
of  those  who  fled  were  sold,  and  their  children  Avho  re- 
mained behind  were  exposed  to  the  greatest  sufferings. 
.But  notwithstanding  this  persecution,  the  Protestants 
would  not  have  thought  of  a  rebellion,  had  not  a  prince  of 
the  blood  encouraged  them  to  it  by  the  promise  of  his 
assistance. 

In  1560  the  conspiracy  began.  The  discontented  in- 
quired of  lawyers  and  theologians  whether  they  could  with 
a  good  conscience  take  arms  against  the  Guises.  The 
Protestant  divines  in  Germany  declared  it  proper  to  resist 
the  tyranny  of  the  Guises,  if  it  were  under  the  guidance 
and  direction  of  a  prince  of  the  blood,  and  with  the  appro- 
bation of  the  majority  in  the  States. 

The  malcontents  having  consulted  upon  the  choice  of  a 
leader,  all  voices  decided  in  favor  of  the  brave  prince 
Louis  of  Conde",  who  had  conducted  the  whole  affair,  and 
gladly  seized  the  opportunity  to  make  himself  formidable 
by  the  support  of  the  Huguenots.  The  name  of  the  leader 
was,  however  kept  secret,  and  a  Protestant  gentleman  of 
Perigord,  John  du  Barry,  seigneur  of  Renaudie,  was  ap- 
pointed his  deputy. 

It  was  determined  that  a  number  of  the  Calvinists 
should  appear  on  an  appointed  day  before  the  king  at 
Blois,  to  present  a  petition  for  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion ;  and,  in  case  this  request  was  denied,  as  it  was 
foreseen  it  would  be,  a  chosen  band,  of  armed  Protestants 
were  to  make  themselves  masters  of  the  city  of  Blois, 
seize  the  Guises,  and  compel  the  king  to  name  the  Prince 
of  Conde"  regent  of  the  realm. 

This  plot  was  betrayed.  The  court  left  Blois,  the  mili- 
tary were  summoned,  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  Protest- 
ants who  had  armed  themselves  to  carry  the  conspiracy 
into  effect,  were  executed  or  imprisoned.  Few  of  those 


HUGUENOTS.  223 

who  fell  into  the  power  of  the  court  found  mercy ;  and 
about  1200  expiated  their  offence  with  their  lives. 

The  Guises  now  desired  to  establish  the  inquisition,  but 
the  wise  chancellor,  Michael  de  1'Hopital,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  greater  evil,  advised  that  all  inquiries  into  the  crime 
of  heresy  should  be  committed  to  the  bishops,  and  that 
parliament  should  be  prohibited  from  exercising  any  juris- 
dictian  in  matters  of  faith  ;  and  it  was  so  ordered  by  the 
edict  of  Romorantin  (1560). 

In  the  reign  of  the  next  king,  Charles  IX.,  during  whose 
minority  the  Queen  mother,  Catharine  de  Medici,  was  at 
the  head  of  the  government,  the  contest  between  the  par- 
ties became  yet  more  violent,  and  their  contending  interests 
were  more  and  more  used  for  a  pretence  to  accomplish 
unholy  designs,  and  it  was  only  from  motives  of  policy 
that  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  was  secured  to  the 
Protestants  by  the  Queen,  in  order  to  preserve  the  balance 
between  tho  parties,  by  the  edict  of  January  (1562),  so 
called.  The  Protestants  thereby  gained  new  courage ;  but 
their  adversaries,  dissatisfied  with  this  ordinance,  and  re- 
gardless of  decency,  disturbed  the  Huguenots  in  their 
religious  services.  Bloody  scenes  were  the  result,  and  the 
massacre  of  Vassy  (1562)  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the 
first  civil  war. 

These  religious  wars  desolated  France  almost  to  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  were  only  interrupted 
by  occasional  truces.  The  suffering  which  these  wars 
brought  upon  the  people  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  instability 
and  bad  policy  of  Queen  Catharine  de  Medici,  who  exerted 
the  most  decided  influence,  not  only  over  the  feeble 
Charles  IX.,  but  likewise  over  the  contemptible  Henry  III. 
She  wished,  in  fact,  for  the  extirpation  of  the  Huguenots, 
and  it  was  merely  her  intriguing  policy  which  induced  her, 
much  to  the  vexation  of  the  opposite  party,  to  favor  the 


224  HUGUENOTS. 

Protestants  from  time  to  time,  and  to  grant  them  freedom 
of  conscience.  Always  wavering  between  the  two  parties, 
she  flattered  herself  with  the  expectation  of  holding  them 
m  check  during  peace,  or  of  destroying  the  one  by  the 
other  in  war.  Both  parties  were,  therefore,  generally  dis- 
satisfied with  the  court,  and  followed  their  own  leaders. 

A  wild  fanaticism  seized  the  people.  Heated  with  pas- 
sion and  religious  hatred,  they  endeavored  only  to  injure 
«ach  other ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  some  party  leaders, 
who  made  use  of  this  excitement  for  the  accomplishment 
of  their  own  ambitious  schemes,  their  only  object  was  to 
acquire  the  superiority  for  their  own  creed  by  fire  and 
sword. 

The  horrible  effect  of  Catharine's  policy  was  the  massa- 
cre of  St.  Bartholomew's  (1572),  of  which  she  and  her 
son,  her  pupil  in  dissimulation,  had  laid  the  plan  with  their 
confidants.  Shortly  before  the  line  of  kings  of  the  house 
of  Valois  had  become  extinct  with  Henry  III.,  and  the 
way  was  opened  for  the  house  of  Bourbon,  the  head  of 
which  was  the  Protestant  Henry,  king  of  Navarre,  the  re- 
lations of  the  two  parties  became  still  more  involved. 

The  feeble  king  found  himself  compelled  to  unite  with 
the  king  of  Navarre  against  the  common  enemy,  as  the 
intrigues  of  the  ambitious  Guises,  who  openly  aimed  at  the 
throne,  had  excited  the  people  against  him  to  such  a  de- 
gree, that  he  was  on  the  point  of  losing  the  crown. 

After  the  assassination  of  Henry  III.,  the  king  of  Na- 
varre was  obliged  to  maintain  a  severe  struggle  for  the 
vacant  throne;  and  not  until  he  had,  by  the  advice  of 
Sully,  embraced  the  Catholic  religion  (1593),  did  he  enjoy 
quiet  possession  of  the  kingdom. 

Five  years  afterwards  he  secured  to  the  Huguenots  their 
civil  rights  by  the  edict  of  Nantes,  which  confirmed  to 
them  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion,  and  gave  them 


HUGUENOTS.  225 

equal  claims  with  the  Catholics  to  all  offices  and  dignities. 
They  were  also  left  in  possession  of  the  fortresses  which 
had  been  ceded  to  them  for  their  security. 

This  edict  afforded  them  a  means  of  forming  a  kind  of 
republic  within  the  kingdom,  and  such  a  powerful  party, 
which  had  for  a  long  time  been  obliged  to  be  distrustful 
of  the  government,  would  always  offer  to  the  restless  no- 
bility a  rallying  point  and  a  prospect  of  assistance. 

Louis  XIII.,  the  weak  and  bigoted  son  of  the  liberal 
and  magnanimous  Henry  IV.,  allowed  himself  to  be  influ- 
enced by  his  ambitious  favorite,  De  Luines,  and  his  con- 
fessor, against  the  Huguenots,  who  were  able  to  offer  a 
powerful  resistance,  as  they  had  become  very  numerous  in 
many  provinces.  But  in'  the  first  religious  war,  which 
broke  out  in  1621,  the  Protestants  lost  the  greatest  part 
of  their  strong  places,  through  the  faithlessness  or  coward- 
ice of  the  governors.  Some  of  these,  however,  and  among 
the  rest  Rochelle,  remained  to  them,  when,  disunited  among 
themselves  and  weary  of  war,  they  concluded  a  peace. 

Rochelle  enabled  them  to  keep  up  a  connection  with 
England ;  and  Richelieu,  who  aimed  to  make  the  royal 
power,  which  he  exercised  under  the  name  of  Louis,  abso- 
lute, used  every  means  to  deprive  the  Protestants  of  this 
bulwark  of  their  liberty,  and  thus  destroy  every  remnant 
of  a  league  which  recalled  the  times  when  civil  factions 
had  so  often  weakened  the  royal  power. 

Rochelle  fell  into  the  hands  of  Louis,  after  an  obstinate 
defence,  in  1629 ;  the  Huguenots  were  obliged  to  surrender 
all  their  strong  holds,  and  were  thus  left  entirely  at  the 
mercy  of  the  king.  Freedom  of  conscience  was  indeed 
promised  them,  and  Richelieu  and  his  successor  Mazarin 
did  not  disturb  them  in  the  enjoyment  of  it ;  but  when 
Louis  XIV.  abandoned  his  voluptuous  life  for  an  affected 
devotion,  he  was  led  by  his  confessors  and  Madame  da 

p 


226  HUGUENOTS. 

Maintenon,  to  persecute  the  Protestants,  for  the  purpose 
of  bringing  them  back  to  the  bosom  of  the  true  church. 

In  1681,  he  deprived  them  of  most  of  their  civil  righto, 
and,  on  the  death  of  Colbert,  who  had  generally  opposed 
violent  measures,  he  followed  altogether  the  advice  of  his 
counsellors,  who  were  in  favor  of  persecution — his  minister 
of  war,  Louvois,  the  chancellor  Le  Tellier,  and  the  Jesuit 
La  Chaise,  his  father  confessor.  Bodies  of  dragoons  were 
sent  into  the  southern  provinces,  where  the  Protestants 
were  most  numerous,  to  compel  the  unhappy  inhabitants 
to  abjure  their  faith. 

To  prevent  the  emigration  of  the  Protestants,  the  fron- 
tiers were  guarded  with  the  utmost  vigilance ;  yet  more 
than  500,000  Huguenots  fled  to  Switzerland,  Germany, 
Holland,  and  England.  Many,  who  could  not  escape, 
were  obliged  to  renounce  their  faith. 

Lists  of  Protestants  who,  it  was  pretended,  had  been 
converted,  were  sent  to  the  king,  and  it  was  very  easy  for 
his  flattering  counsellors  to  persuade  him  that  he  had 
gained  honor  by  having  almost  extirpated  the  Protestants 
in  France.  Under  this  erroneous  supposition,  he  revoked 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  October  22,  1685.  But  he  had  still 
more  than  half  a  million  of  Protestant  subjects,  and  this 
unjust  and  unwise  revocation  robbed  France  of  a  great 
number  of  useful  and  rich  inhabitants,  whose  industry, 
wealth,  and  skill  found  a  welcome  reception  in  foreign 
countries. 

But  quiet  was  by  no  means  restored  in  France.  In  the 
provinces  between  the  Rhone  and  Grarorme,  the  Protestants 
were  yet  very  numerous,  and  the  neighboring  mountains 
oi  Ceveunes  afforded  them  shelter.  There  the  Camisards 
maintained  war  for  a  long  time,  armed  for  the  most  part 
with  clubs  alone.  The  contest  was  not  altogether  uDiike 
the  war  of  La  Vendee  in  later  times. 


HUGUENOTS.  227 

After  twenty  years  (1706),  the  government  was  finally 
obliged  to  come  to  terms  with  them ;  yet  quiet  was  not 
perfectly  restored.  In  the  level  country,  especially  at 
Nismes,  a  Protestant  spirit  still  survived  in  secret ;  even 
the  compassion  of  the  Catholics  was  excited,  and  many 
persecutors  of  the  Protestants  became  their  defenders; 
and  there  were  not  wanting  clergymen  among  the  Hugue- 
nots, who  were  kept  concealed. 

In  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.,  new  but  less  severe  measures 
were  adopted  against  the  Protestants,  and,  in  1746,  they 
ventured  to  appear  publicly  in  Languedoc  and  Dauphiny. 
By  degrees,  many  voices  were  raised  in  favor  of  religious 
toleration.  Montesquieu  led  the  way ;  but  Voltaire, 
shocked  by  the  unhappy  fate  of  John  Galas,  effected  still 
more  by  his  Essay  on  Toleration,  in  1762. 

From  this  time  Protestants  were  no  longer  disturbed , 
yet  they  did  not  dare  to  make  pretensions  to  public  offices. 
The  Revolution  restored  them  all  their  civil  rights,  and 
they  frequently  laid  out  their  hitherto  secreted  treasures 
in  the  purchase  tf  the  national  domains.  It  was  not 
therefore  strange  that,  at  the  Restoration,  they  appeared 
attached  to  the  former  government,  which  had  granted 
them  privileges  that  they  were  fearful  of  losing  under  the 
new.  Although  they  did  not  offer  any  opposition  to  the 
new  order  of  things,  yet  troubles  took  place,  which  were 
attended  with  bloodshed,  at  Nismes  and  the  vicinity ;  but 
these  were  suppressed  by  the  judicious  measures  of  the 
government. 

On  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  a  considerable 
number  of  Protestants  fled  for  refuge  to  America,  most 
of  whom  settled  in  South  Carolina.  Dr.  Ramsey,  in  his 
History  of  South  Carolina,  thus  notices  this  little  colony 
of  Huguenots : 

;'  The  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  fifteen  years 


228  QUAKERS. 

subsequent  to  the  settlement  of  Carolina,  contributed  much 
to  its  population.  In  it,  soon  after  that  event,  were  trans- 
planted from  France  the  stocks  from  which  have  sprung 
the  respectable  families  of  Bonneau,  Bounetheau,  Bor- 
deaux, Benoist,  Boiseau,  Bocquet,  Bacot,  Chevalier,  Cordes, 
Couterier,  Chastaignier,  Dupre,  Delysle,  Dubose,  Dubois, 
Deveaux,  Dutarque,  De  la  Consiliere,  De  Leiseline,  Doux- 
saint,  Du  Pont,  Du  Bourdieu,  D'Harriette,  Faucheraud, 
Foissin,  Faysoux,  Gaillard,  Gendron,  Gignilliat,  Guerard, 
Godin,  Girardeau,  Guerin,  Gourdine,  Horry,  Huger,  Jean- 
nerette,  Legare,  Laurens,  La  Roche,  Lenud,  Lansac,  Ma- 
rion, Mazyck,  Manigault,  Mellichamp,  Mouzon,  Michau, 
Neufville,  Prioleau,*  Peronneau,  Perdriau,  Porcher,  Pos- 
tell,  Peyre,  Poyas,  Ravenel,  Royer,  Simons,  Sarazin,  St. 
Julien,  Serre,  Trezevant. 


QUAKERS, 

A  SECT  which  took  its  rise  in  England  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  rapidly  found  its  way  into 
other  countries  in  Europe,  and  into  the  English  settlements 
in  North  America.  The  members  of  this  society,  we  believe, 
called  themselves  at  first  Seekers,  from  their  seeking  the 

*  The  Rev.  Elias  Prioleau,  the  founder  of  the  eminently  respect- 
ible  family  of  that  name  in  Carolina,  migrated  thither  soon  after 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  and  brought  with  him  from 
France  a  considerable  part  of  his  Protestant  congregation.  He  was 
the  grandson  of  Anthoine  Prioli,  who  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice 
in  the  year  1618.  Many  of  his  numerous  descendants,  who  were 
born  and  constantly  resided  in  or  near  Charleston,  have  approached 
or  exceeded  their  seventieth  year;  and  several  have  survived,  or 
now  survive,  their  eightieth. 


CS  E    F 


QUAKERS  228 

truth ;  but  after  the  society  was  formed,  they  assumed  the 
appellation  of  Friends.  The  name  of  Quakers  was  given 
to  them  hy  their  enemies,  and  though  an  epithet  of  reproach, 
seems  to  be  stamped  upon  them  indelibly.  George  Fox  is 
supposed  to  be  their  first  founder ;  but  after  the  restoration, 
Penn  and  Barclay  gave  to  theii  principles  a  more  regular 
form. 

The  doctrines  of  their  society  have  been  variously  repre- 
sented ;  and  some  have  thought  and  taken  pains  to  prove 
them  favorable  to  Socinianism.  But,  according  to  Penn, 
they  believe  in  the  Holy  Three,  or  the  trinity  of  the  Father, 
Word,  and  Spirit,  agreeably  to  the  Scripture.  In  reply  to 
the  charge  that  they  deny  Christ  to  be  God,  Penn  saya 
"that  it  is  a  most  untrue  and  uncharitable  censure  —that 
they  truly  and  expressly  own  him  to  be  so  according  to  the 
Scripture."  To  the  objection  that  they  deny  the  human 
nature  of  Christ,  he  answers,  "  We  never  taught,  said,  or 
held  so  gross  a  thing,  but  believe  him  to  be  truly  and  pro- 
perly man  like  us,  sin  only  excepted."  The  doctrines  of 
the  fall,  and  the  redemption  by  Christ,  are,  according  to 
him,  believed  firmly  by  them ;  and  he  declares  "  that  they 
own  Jesus  Christ  as  their  sacrifice,  atonement,  and  pro- 
pitiation." 

But  we  shall  here  state  a  further  account  of  their  prin- 
ciples and  discipline,  as  extracted  from  a  summary  trans- 
mitted from  one  of  their  most  respectable  members. 

They  tell  us  that  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  a  number  of  men,  dissatisfied  with  all  the  modes 
of  religious  worship  then  known  in  the  world,  withdrew 
from  the  communion  of  every  visible  cLurch  to  seek  the 
Lord  in  retirement.  Among  these  was  their  honorable  elder •, 
G-eorge  Fox,  who,  being  quickened  by  the  immediate  touches 
of  divine  love,  could  not  satisfy  his  apprehensions  of  duty 
to  God  without  directing  the  people  where  to  find  the  like 
20 


230 


QUAKERS. 


consolation  and  instruction.  In  the  course  of  his  travels, 
he  met  with  many  seeking  persons  in  circumstances  similar 
to  his  own,  and  these  readily  received  his  testimony.  They 
then  give  us  a  short  account  of  their  sufferings  and  differ- 
ent settlements ;  they  also  vindicate  Charles  II.  from  the 
character  of  a  persecutor ;  acknowledging  that,  though  they 
suffered  much  during  his  reign,  he  gave  as  little  counte- 
nance as  he  could  to  the  severities  of  the  legislature.  They 
even  tell  us  that  he  exerted  his  influence  to  rescue  their 
friends  from  the  unprovoked  and  cruel  persecutions  they 
met  with  in  New  England  ;  and  they  speak  with  becoming 
gratitute  of  the  different  acts  passed  in  their  favor  during 
the  reigns  of  William  and  Mary,  and  George  I.  They 
then  proceed  to  give  us  the  following  account  of  their 
doctrine :  — 

"  We  agree  with  other  professors  of  the  Christian  name, 
in  the  belief  of  one  eternal  God,  the  Creator  and  Preserver 
of  the  universe :  and  in  Jesus  Christ  his  Son,  the  Messiah 
and  mediator  of  the  new  covenant  (Heb.  xii.  24). 

"When  we  speak  of  the  gracious  display  of  the  love 
of  God  to  mankind,  in  the  miraculous  conception,  birth, 
life,  miracles,  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension  of  our 
Saviour,  we  prefer  the  use  of  such  terms  as  we  find  in  Scrip- 
ture ;  and,  contented  with  that  knowledge  which  divine 
wisdom  hath  seen  meet  to  reveal,  we  attempt  not  to  explain 
those  mysteries  which  remain  under  the  veil ;  nevertheless 
we  acknowledge  and  assert  the  divinity  of  Christ,  who  is 
the  wisdom  and  puwer  of  God  unto  salvation  (1  Cor.  i.  24). 

"  To  Christ  alone  we  give  the  title  of  the  Word  of  God, 
(John  i.  1),  and  not  to  the  Scriptures,  although  we  highly 
esteem  these  sacred  writings,  in  subordination  to  the  Spirit 
(2  Pet.  i.  21)  from  which  they  were  given  forth ;  and  we 
hold,  with  the  apostle  Paul,  that  they  are  able  to  make  wise 


QUAKERS.  231 

unto  salvation,  through  faith,  wnich  is  in  Christ  Jesus  (2 
Tim.  iii.  15). 

"  We  reverence  those  most  excellent  precepts  which  are 
recorded  in  Scripture  to  have  heen  delivered  by  our  great 
Lord ;  and  we  firmly  believe  that  they  are  practicable,  and 
binding  on  every  Christian ;  and  that  in  the  life  to  come 
every  man  will  be  rewarded  according  to  his  works  (Matt, 
xvi.  27).  And,  further,  it  is  our  belief  that,  in  order  to 
enable  mankind  to  put  in  practice  these  sacred  precepts, 
many  of  which  are  contradictory  to  the  unregenerate  will 
of  man  (John  i.  9),  every  man  coming  into  the  world  is 
endued  with  a  measure  of  the  light,  grace,  or  good  Spirit 
of  Christ ;  by  which,  as  it  is  attended  to,  he  is  enabled  to 
distinguish  good  from  evil,  and  to  correct  the  disorderly 
passions  and  corrupt  propensities  of  his  nature,  which  mere 
reason  is  altogether  insufficient  to  overcome.  For  all  that 
belongs  to  man  is  fallible,  and  within  the  reach  of  tempta- 
tion ;  but  this  divine  grace,  which  comes  by  him  who  hath 
overcome  the  world  (John  xvi.  33 J,  is,  to  those  who  humbly 
and  sincerely  seek  it,  an  all-sufficient  and  present  help  in 
time  of  need.  By  this  the  snares  of  the  enemy  are  detected, 
his  allurements  avoided,  and  deliverance  is  experienced 
through  faith  in  its  effectual  operation ;  whereby  the  soul 
is  translated  out  of  the  kingdom  of  darkness,  and  from 
under  the  power  of  Satan,  unto  the  marvellous  light  and 
^mgdom  of  the  Son  of  God. 

"Being  thus  persuaded  that  man,  without  the  Spirit 
of  Christ  inwardly  revealed,  can  do  nothing  to  the  glory 
of  God,  or  to  effect  bis  own  salvation,  we  think  this  influ- 
ence especially  necessary  to  the  performance  of  the  highest 
act  of  which  the  human  mind  is  capable ;  even  the  worship 
of  the  Father  of  light  and  of  spirits,  in  spirit  and  in  truth: 
therefore  we  consider,  ns  obstructions  to  pure  worship,  all 
forms  which  divert  tb*  attention  of  the  miiid  from  the 


232  QUAKERS. 

secret  influence  of  this  unction  from  the  Holy  One  (1  John 
ii.  20,  27).  Yet,  although  true  worship  is  not  confined  to 
time  and  place,  we  think  it  incumbent  on  Christians  to  meel 
often  together  (Heb.  x.  25),  in  testimony  of  their  depend- 
ence on  the  heavenly  Father,  and  for  a  renewal  of  their 
spiritual  strength :  nevertheless,  in  the  performance  of  wor- 
ship, we  dare  not  depend  for  our  acceptance  with  him  on 
a  formal  repetition  of  the  words  and  experiences  of  others; 
but  we  believe  it  to  be  our  duty  to  lay  aside  the  activity 
of  the  imagination,  and  to  wait  in  silence  to  have  a  true 
sight  of  our  condition  bestowed  upon  us  ;  believing  even  a 
single  sigh  (Rom.  vii.  24)  arising  from  such  a  sense  of  our 
infirmities,  and  of  the  need  we  have  of  divine  help,  to  be 
more  acceptable  to  God  than  any  performances,  however 
specious,  which  originate  in  the  will  of  man. 

"  From  what  has  been  said  respecting  worship,  it  follows 
that  the  ministry  we  approve  must  have  its  origin  from  the 
same  source ;  for  that  which  is  needful  for  man's  own  direc- 
tion, and  for  his  acceptance  with  God  (Jer.  xxiii.  30  to  32), 
must  be  eminently  so  to  enable  him  to  be  helpful  to  others. 
Accordingly,  we  believe  that  the  renewed  assistance  of  the 
light  and  power  of  Christ  is  indispensably  necessary  for 
all  true  ministry,  and  that  this  holy  influence  is  not  at  our 
command,  or  to  be  procured  by  study,  but  in  the  free  gift 
of  God  to  chosen  and  devoted  servants.  Hence  arises  our 
testimony  against  preaching  for  hire,  in  contradiction  to 
Christ's  positive  command,  '  Freely  ye  have  received,  freely 
give'  (Matt.  x.  8);  and  hence  our  conscientious  refusal  to 
support  such  ministry  by  tithes,  or  other  means. 

"As  we  dare  not  encourage  any  ministry  but  that  which 
we  believe  to  spring  from  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
so  neither  dare  we  attempt  to  restrain  this  influence  to 
persons  of  any  condition  in  life,  or  to  the  male  sex  alone ; 
but,  as  male  and  female  are  one  in  Christ,  we  allow  such 


QUAKERS.  233 

of  the  female  sex  as  we  believe  to  be  endued  with  a  right 
qualification  for  the  ministry,  to  exercise  their  gifts  for  the 
general  edification  of  the  church  ;  and  this  liberty  we  esteem 
a  peculiar  mark  of  the  Gospel  dispensation,  as  foretold  by 
the  prophet  Joel  (Joel  ii.  28,  29) ;  and  noticed  by  the  apostle 
Peter  (Acts  ii.  16,  17). 

"  There  are  two  ceremonies  in  use  among  most  professors 
of  the  Christian  name, — water  baptism,  and  what  is  termed 
the  Lord's  Supper.  The  first  of  these  is  generally  esteemed 
the  essential  means  of  initiation  into  the  church  of  Christ; 
and  the  latter  of  maintaining  communion  with  him.  But 
as  we  have  been  convinced  that  nothing  short  of  his  re- 
deeming power,  invariably  revealed,  can  set  the  soul  free 
from  the  thraldom  of  sin,  by  this  power  alone  we  believe 
salvation  to  be  effected.  We  hold  that,  as  there  is  one 
Lord  and  one  faith  (Eph.  iv.  5),  so  his  baptism  is  one  in 
nature  and  operation ;  that  nothing  short  of  it  can  make 
us  living  members  of  his  mystical  body;  and  that  the 
baptism  with  water,  administered  by  his  forerunner  John, 
belonged,  as  the  latter  confessed,  to  an  inferior  dispensa- 
tion (John  iii.  30). 

"  With  respect  to  the  other  rite,  we  believe  that  commu- 
nion between  Christ  and  his  church  is  not  maintained  by 
that  nor  any  other  external  performance,  but  only  by  a 
real  participation  of  his  divine  nature  (1  Pet.  ii.  4)  through 
faith ;  that  this  is  the  supper  alluded  to  in  the  Revelation 
(Rev.  vii.  20) :  '  Behold  I  stand  at  the  door  and  knock : 
if  any  man  hear  my  voice,  and  open  the  door,  I  will  come 
in  to  him,  and  will  sup  with  him,  and  he  with  me ;'  and 
that  where  the  substance  is  attained,  it  is  unnecessary  to 
attend  to  the  shadow,  which  doth  not  confer  grace,  and 
concerning  which  opinions  so  different  and  animosities  so 
violent  have  arisen. 

"  Now,  as  we  thus  believe  that  the  grace  of  God,  which 
20  • 


234  QUAKERS. 

comes  by  Jesus  Christ,  is  alone  sufficient  for  salvation,  we 
can  neither  admit  that  it  is  jonferred  on  a  few  only,  whilst 
others  are  left  without  it,  nor,  thus  asserting  its  univer- 
sality, can  we  limit  its  operation  to  a  partial  cleansing 
of  the  soul  from  sin,  even  in  this  life.  We  entertain  wor- 
thier notions  both  of  the  power  and  goodness  of  our  hea- 
venly Father,  and  believe  that  he  doth  vouchsafe  to  assist 
the  obedient  to  experience  a  total  surrender  of  the  natural 
will  to  the  guidance  of  his  pure,  unerring  Spirit,  through 
whosb  renewed  assistance  they  are  enabled  to  bring  forth 
fruits  unto  holiness,  and  to  stand  perfect  in  their  present 
rank  (Matt.  v.  48 ;  Eph.  iv.  13 ;  Col.  iv.  12). 

"  There  are  not  many  of  our  tenets  more  generally 
known  than  our  testimony  against  oaths,  and  against  war. 
With  respect  to  the  former  of  these,  we  abide  literally  by 
Christ's  positive  injunction,  delivered  in  his  sermon  on  the 
mount,  '  Swear  not  at  all'  (Matt.  v.  34).  From  the  same  sa- 
cred collection  of  the  most  excellent  precepts  of  moral  and 
religious  duty,  from  the  example  of  our  Lord  himself  (Matt. 
v.  39,  44,  &c.;  xxvi.  52,  53 ;  Luke  xxii.  51 ;  John  xviii. 
11),  and  from  the  correspondent  convictions  of  his  Spirit 
in  our  hearts,  we  are  confirmed  in  the  belief  that  wars  and 
fightings  are  in  their  origin  and  effects  utterly  repugnant 
to  the  Gospel,  which  still  breathes  peace  and  good-will  to 
men.  We  also  are  clearly  of  the  judgment  that  if  the  be- 
nevolence of  the  Gospel  were  generally  prevalent  in  the 
minds  of  men,  it  would  effectually  prevent  them  from  op- 
pressing, much  more  from  enslaving,  their  brethren  (of  what- 
ever color  or  complexion),  for  whom,  as  for  themselves, 
Christ  died;  and  would  even  influence  their  conduct  in 
their  treatment  of  the  brute  creation,  which  would  no  longer 
groan,  the  victims  of  their  avarice,  or  of  their  false  ideas 
of  pleasure. 

"  Some  of  our  ideas  have,  in  former  times,  £*s  hath,  been 


QUAKERS.  235 

shown,  subjected  our  friends  to  much  suffering  from  govern- 
mt-nt,  though  to  the  salutary  purposes  of  government  our 
principles  are  a  security.  They  inculcate  submission  to 
the  laws  in  all  cases  wherein  conscience  is  not  violated. 
But  we  hold  that  as  Christ's  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world, 
it  is  not  the  business  of  the  civil  magistrate  to  interfere  in 
matters  of  religion,  but  to  maintain  the  external  peace  and 
good  order  of  the  community.  We  therefore  think  perse- 
cution, even  in  the  smallest  degree,  unwarrantable.  We 
are  careful  in  requiring  our  members  not  to  be  concerned 
in  illicit  trade,  nor  in  any  manner  to  defraud  the  revenue. 

"  It  is  well  known  that  the  society,  from  its  first  appear- 
ance, has  disused  those  names  of  the  months  and  days, 
which,  having  been  given  in  honor  of  the  heroes  or  false 
gods  of  the  heathen,  originated  in  their  flattery  or  super- 
stition ;  and  the  custom  of  speaking  to  a  single  person  in 
the  plural  number,  as  having  arisen  also  from  motives 
of  adulation.  Compliments,  superfluity  of  apparel  and 
furniture,  outward  shows  of  rejoicing  and  mourning,  and 
the  observation  of  days  and  times,  we  esteem  to  be  in- 
compatible with  the  simplicity  and  sincerity  of  a  Christian 
life  ;  and  public  diversions,  gaming,  and  other  vain  amuse- 
ments of  the  world,  we  cannot  but  condemn.  They  are  a 
waste  of  that  time  which  is  given  us  for  nobler  purposes ; 
and  divert  the  attention  of  the  mind  from  the  sober  duties 
of  life,  and  from  the  reproofs  of  instruction  by  which  we 
are  guided  to  an  everlasting  inheritance. 

"  To  conclude :  although  we  have  exhibited  the  several 
tenets  which  distinguish  our  religious  society  as  objects 
of  our  belief,  yet  we  are  sensible  that  a  true  and  living 
faith  is  not  produced  in  the  mind  of  man  by  his  own  effort, 
but  is  the  free  gift  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus  (Eph.  ii.  8),  nou- 
rished and  increased  by  the  progressive  operation  of  his 
Spirit  in  our  hearts,  and  our  proportionate  obedience  (J  ohn 


236  QUAKERS. 

vii.  17).  Therefore,  although  for  the  preservation  of  the 
testimonies  given  us  to  bear,  and  for  the  peace  and  good 
order  of  the  society,  we  deem  it  necessary  that  those  who 
are  admitted  into  membership  with  us  should  be  previously 
convinced  of  those  doctrines  which  we  esteem  essential,  yet 
we  require  no  formal  subscription  to  any  articles,  either  as 
a  condition  of  membership,  or  a  qualification  for  the  service 
of  the  church.  We  prefer  the  judging  of  men  by  their 
fruits,  and  depending  on  the  aid  of  Him  who,  by  his  pro- 
phet, hath  promised  to  be  '  a  spirit  of  judgment  to  him  that 
eitteth  in  judgment.'  (Is.  xxviii.  6.)  Without  this,  there  is 
a  danger  of  receiving  numbers  into  outward  communion, 
•without  any  addition  to  that  spiritual  sheep-fold,  whereof 
our  blessed  Lord  declared  himself  to  be  both  the  door  and 
the  shepherd  (John  x.  7,  11) ;  that  is,  such  as  know  his 
Voice  and  follow  him  in  the  paths  of  obedience. 

"In  the  practice  of  discipline,  we  think  it  indispensable 
that  the  order  recommended  by  Christ  himself  be  invaria- 
bly observed  (Matt,  xviii.  15,  17). 

"To  effect  the  salutary  purposes  of  discipline,  meetings 
were  appointed  at  an  early  period  of  the  society,  which, 
from  the  times  of  their  being  held,  were  called  quarterly 
meetings.  It  was  afterwards  found  expedient  to  divide  the 
districts  of  those  meetings,  and  to  meet  more  frequently, 
from  whence  arose  monthly  meetings,  subordinate  to  those 
held  quarterly.  At  length,  in  1669,  a  yearly  meeting  was 
established,  to  superintend,  assist,  and  provide  rules  for  the 
•whole,  previously  to  which  general  meetings  had  been  oc- 
casionally held. 

"A  monthly  meeting  is  usually  composed  of  several 
particular  congregations,  situated  within  a  convenient  dis- 
tance from  each  other.  Its  business  is  to  provide  for  the 
subsistence  of  the  poor,  and  for  the  education  of  their  off- 
spring j  to  judge  of  the  sincerity  aud  iiiness  of  persons 


QUAKERS.  237 

appearing  to  be  convinced  of  the  religious  principles  of 
the  society,  and  desiring  to  be  admitted  into  membership; 
to  excite  due  attention  to  the  discharge  of  religious  and 
moral  duty;  and  to  deal  with  disorderly  members.  Monthly 
meetings  also  grant  to  such  of  their  members  as  remove 
into  other  monthly  meetings  certificates  of  their  member- 
ship and  conduct ;  without  which  they  cannot  gain  mem- 
bership in  such  meetings.  Each  monthly  meeting  is  re- 
quired to  appoint  certain  persons,  under  the  name  of 
overseers,  who  are  to  take  care  that  the  rules  of  our  dis- 
cipline be  put  in  practice ;  and  when  any  case  of  complaint 
or  disorderly  conduct  comes  to  their  knowledge,  to  see  that 
private  admonition,  agreeably  to  the  gospel  rule  before 
mentioned,  be  given,  previously  to  its  being  laid  before  the 
monthly  meeting. 

"  When  a  case  is  introduced,  it  is  usual  for  a  small  com- 
mittee to  be  appointed  to  visit  the  offender,  to  endeavor  to 
convince  him  of  his  error,  and  to  induce  him  to  forsake 
and  condemn  it.  If  they  succeed,  the  person  is  by  minute 
declared  to  have  made  satisfaction  for  the  offence ;  if  not, 
he  is  disowned  as  a  member  of  the  society. 

"In  disputes  between  individuals,  it  has  long  been  the 
decided  judgment  of  the  society  that  its  members  should 
not  sue  each  other  at  law.  It  therefore  enjoins  all  to  end 
their  differences  by  speedy  and  impartial  arbitration, 
agreeably  to  rules  laid  down.  If  any  refuse  to  adopt  this 
mode,  or,  having  adopted  it,  to  submit  to  the  award,  it  is 
the  direction  of  the  yearly  meeting  that  such  be  disowned. 

"  To  monthly  meetings  also  belongs  the  allowing  of 
marriages ;  for  our  society  hath  always  scrupled  to  ac- 
knowledge the  exclusive  authority  of  the  priests  in  the 
solemnization  of  marriage.  Those  who  intend  to  marry 
appear  together,  and  propose  their  intention  to  the  monthly 
meeting ;  and  if  not  attended  by  their  parents  and  guar- 


238  QUAKERS. 

dians,  produce  a  written  certificate  of  their  consent,  signed 
in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  The  meeting  then  appoints 
a  committee  to  inquire  whether  they  be  clear  of  other  en- 
gagements respecting  marriage  ;  and  if  at  a  subsequent 
meeting,  to  which  the  parties  also  come  and  declare  the 
continuance  of  their  intention,  no  objections  be  reported 
they  have  the  meeting's  consent  to  solemnize  their  in- 
tended marriage.  This  is  done  in  a  public  meeting  for 
worship,  towards  the  close  whereof  the  parties  stand  up, 
and  solemnly  take  each  other  for  husband  and  wife.  A 
certificate  of  the  proceedings  is  then  publicly  read,  and 
signed  by  the  parties,  and  afterwards  by  the  relations  and 
others  as  witnesses.  Of  such  marriage  the  monthly  meet- 
ing keeps  a  record ;  as  also  of  the  births  and  burials  of 
its  members.  A  certificate  of  the  date,  of  the  name  of 
the  infant,  and  of  its  parents,  signed  by  those  present  at 
the  birth,  is  the  subject  of  one  of  these  last-mentioned 
records;  and  an  order  for  the  interment,  countersigned  by 
the  grave-maker,  of  the  other.  The  naming  of  children 
is  without  ceremony.  Burials  are  also  conducted  in  a  sim- 
ple manner.  The  body,  followed  by  the  relations  and 
friends,  is  sometimes,  previously  to  interment,  carried  to  a 
meeting ;  and  at  the  grave  a  pause  is  generally  made  ;  on 
both  which  occasions  it  frequently  falls  out  that  one  or 
more  friends  present  have  somewhat  to  express  for  the  edi- 
fication of  those  who  attend ;  but  no  religious  rite  is  con- 
sidered as  an  essential  part  of  burial. 

"  Several  monthly  meetings  compose  a  quarterly  meet- 
ing. At  the  quarterly  meeting  are  produced  written 
answers  from  the  monthly  meetings  to  certain  queries  re- 
specting the  conduct  of  their  members,  and  the  meeting's 
care  over  them.  The  accounts  thus  received  are  digested 
into  one,  which  is  sent,  also  in  the  form  of  answers  to 
queries,  by  representatives  to  the  yearly  meeting.  Ap- 


QUAKERS.  239 

peals  from  the  judgment  of  monthly  meetings  are  brought 
to  the  quarterly  meetings,  whose  business  also  it  is  to  assist 
in  any  difficult  case,  or  where  remissness  appears  in  the 
care  of  the  monthly  meetings  over  the  individuals  who 
compose  them.  There  are  seven  yearly  meetings,  viz. : 
1.  London,  to  which  come  representatives  from  Ireland ; 
2  New  England ;  3.  New  York ;  4.  Pennsylvania  ami 
New  Jersey ;  5.  Maryland ;  6.  Virginia ;  7.  The  Carolinas 
and  Georgia. 

"  The  yearly  meeting  has  the  general  superintendence 
of  the  society  in  the  country  in  which  it  is  established  ; 
and,  therefore,  as  the  accounts  which  it  receives  discover 
the  state  of  inferior  meetings,  as  particular  exigencies  re- 
quire, or  as  the  meeting  is  impressed  with  a  sense  of  duty, 
it  gives  its  advice,  making  such  regulations  as  appear  to 
be  requisite,  or  excites  to  the  observance  of  those  already 
made ;  and  sometimes  appoints  committees  to  visit  those 
quarterly  meetings  which  appear  to  be  in  need  of  imme- 
diate advice.  Appeals  from  the  judgment  of  quarterly 
meetings  are  here  finally  determined ;  and  a  brotherly  cor- 
respondence, by  epistles,  is  maintained  with  other  yearly 
meetings. 

"  In  this  place  it  is  proper  to  add,  that,  as  we  believe 
women  may  be  rightly  called  to  the  work  of  the  ministry, 
we  also  think  that  to  them  belongs  a  share  in  the  support 
of  our  Christian  discipline;  and  that  some  parts  of  it 
wherein  their  own  sex  is  concerned,  devolve  on  them  with 
peculiar  propriety ;  accordingly  they  have  monthly,  quar- 
terly, and  yearly  meetings  of  their  own  sex,  held  at  the 
same  time,  and  in  the  same  place  with  those  of  the  men  ; 
but  separately,  and  without  the  power  of  making  rules ; 
and  it  may  be  remarked,  that  during  the  persecutions 
which  in  the  last  century  occasioned  the  imprisonment  of 


240  QUAKERS. 

so  many  of  the  men,  the  care  of  the  poor  often  fell  on  the 
women,  and  was  by  them  satisfactorily  administered. 

"  In  order  that  those  who  are  in  the  situation  of  minis- 
ters may  have  the  tender  sympathy  and  counsel  of  those 
of  either  sex  who,  by  their  experience  in  the  work  of  reli- 
gion, are  qualified  for  that  service,  the  monthly  meetings 
are  advised  to  select  such,  under  the  denomination  cf 
elders.  These,  and  ministers  approved  by  their  monthly 
meetings,  have  meetings  peculiar  to  themselves,  called 
meetings  of  ministers  and  elders ;  in  which  they  have  an 
opportunity  of  exciting  each  other  to  a  discharge  of  their 
several  duties,  and  of  extending  advice  to  those  who  may 
appear  to  be  weak,  without  any  needless  exposure.  Such 
meetings  are  generally  held  in  the  compass  of  each 
monthly,  quarterly,  and  yearly  meeting.  They  are  con- 
ducted by  rules  prescribed  by  the  yearly  meeting,  and 
have  no  authority  to  make  any  alteration  or  addition  t& 
them.  The  members  of  them  unite  with  their  brethren  in 
the  meetings  for  discipline,  and  are  equally  accountable  to 
the  latter  for  their  conduct. 

"  It  is  to  a  meeting  of  this  kind  in  London,  called  the 
second  day's  morning  meeting,  that  the  revisal  of  manu- 
scripts concerning  our  principles,  previously  to  publication, 
is  intrusted  by  the  yearly  meeting ;  and  also  the  granting, 
in  the  intervals  of  the  yearly  meeting,  of  certificates  of 
approbation  to  such  ministers  as  are  concerned  to  travel  in 
the  work  of  the  ministry  in  foreign  parts,  in  addition  to 
those  granted  by  their  monthly  or  quarterly  meetings. 
When  a  visit  of  this  kind  doth  net  extend  beyond  Great 
Britain,  a  certificate  from  the  monthly  meeting  of  which 
the  minister  is  a  member,  is  sufficient ;  if  to  Ireland,  the 
concurrence  of  the  quarterly  meeting  is  also  required. 
Regulations  of  similar  tendency  obtain  in  other  yearly 
meetings. 


QUAKERS.  241 

"  The  yearly  meeting  of  London,  in  the  year  1675,  ap- 
pointed a  meeting  to  be  held  in  that  city,  for  the  purpose 
of  advising  and  assisting  in  cases  of  suffering  for  con- 
science' sake,  which  hath  continued  with  great  use  to  the 
society  to  this  day.  It  is  composed  of  friends,  under  the 
name  of  correspondents,  chosen  by  the  several  quarterly 
meetings,  and  who  reside  in  or  near  the  society.  The 
same  meetings  also  appoint  members  of  their  own  in  the 
country  us  correspondents,  who  are  to  join  their  brethren 
in  London  on  emergency.  The  names  of  all  these  corres- 
pondents, previously  to  their  being  recorded  as  such,  are 
submitted  to  the  approbation  of  the  yearly  meeting. 
Those  of  the  men  who  are  approved  ministers  are  also 
members  of  this  meeting,  which  is  called  the  meeting  for 
sufferings — a  name  arising  from  its  original  purpose,  which 
is  not  yet  become  entirely  obsolete. 

"  The  yearly  meeting  has  intrusted  the  meeting  for  suf- 
ferings with  the  care  of  printing  and  distributing  books, 
and  with  the  management  of  its  stock ;  and,  considered  aa 
a  standing  committee  of  the  yearly  meeting,  it  hath  a 
general  care  of  whatever  may  arise,  during  the  interval* 
of  that  meeting,  affecting  the  society,  and  requiring  imme- 
diate attention,  particularly  of  those  circumstances  which 
piay  occasion  an  application  to  government. 

"  There  is  not,  in  any  of  the  meetings  which  have  been 
mentioned,  any  president,  as  we  believe  that  divine  wisdom 
alone  ought  to  preside ;  nor  hath  any  member  a  right  to 
claim  pre-eminence  over  the  rest.  The  office  of  clerk, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  is  undertaken  voluntarily  by  some 
member,  as  is  also  the  keeping  of  the  records.  When 
these  are  very  voluminous,  and  require  a  house  for  their 
deposit  (is  is  the  case  in  London,  where  the  general  re- 
cords of  the  society  in  Great  Britain  are  kept),  a  clerk  is 
hired  to.  have  the  care  of  them ;  but  except  a  few  clerks 
21 


V 
242  QUAKERS. 

of  this  kind,  and  persons  who  have  the  care  of  meeting- 
houses, none  receive  any  stipend  or  gratuity  for  their  ser- 
vices in  our  religious  society." 

George  Fox,  the  founder  of  this  sect,  was  brought  he- 
fore  two  justices  in  Derbyshire,  one  of  whom  reviled  him, 
ana  bade  him  tremble  at  the  word  of  the  Lord.  From  this 
circumstance  arose  the  appellation  Quakers,  usually  given 
to  his  followers ;  they  call  themselves  Friends,  from  the 
scriptural  salutation,  "  Our  friends  salute  thee."  In  1656 
they  came  to  America,  and  settled  principally  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. They  are  opposed  to  the  practice  of  taking  oaths, 
and  to  war,  in  all  its  forms.  They  agree  with  the  Bap- 
tists in  denying  the  validity  of  infant  baptism.  They  ex- 
tend the  privilege  of  preaching  the  gospel  to  females  as 
well  as  to  males.  They  have  also  peculiar  notions  in  re- 
gard to  dress,  plainness  and  simplicity  in  language,  etc. 

Within  a  few  years  past,  in  this  country,  there  has  been 
a  serious  schism  among  the  Quakers  —  a  part  professing 
the  doctrines  of  Unitarianism,  and  called  fficksites,  from 
their  leader,  the  late  Elias  Hicks ;  the  other  portion  adhe- 
ring to  the  orthodox  doctrines.  It  having  been  made  a 
question  which  of  them  ought  to  be  considered  as  seceding 
from  the  doctrines  of  the  original  sect,  the  yearly  meeting 
of  the  Friends  in  London,  May  20,  1829,  sent  forth  an 
epistle  containing  a  statement  of  their  belief;  from  which 
it  appears  that  they  fully  believe  in  the  inspiration  of  the 
Scriptures,  the  supreme  divinity  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
and  in  the  atonement  by  his  sufferings  and  death.  By 
Aate  reports,  it  appears  that  there  are  in  the  United  States 
about  150,000  members  of  this  society,  of  whom  more 
than  50,000  are  Hicksites;  the  remainder  principally 
Tthodox. 


AKIANS.  245 


ARIANS. 

ARIANS,  followers  of  Arius,  a  presbyter  of  the  church 
of  Alexandria,  about  315,  who  maintained  that  the  Son  of 
God  was  totally  and  essentially  distinct  from  the  Father ; 
that  he  was  the  first  and  noblest  of  those  beings  whom 
God  had  created  —  the  instrument,  by  whose  subordinate 
operation  he  formed  the  universe ;  and,  therefore,  inferior 
to  the  Father  both  in  nature  and  dignity ;  also,  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  was  not  God,  but  created  by  the  power  of  the 
Son. 

The  Arians  owned  that  the  Son  was  the  Word;  but 
denied  that  Word  to  have  been  eternal.  They  held  that 
Christ  had  nothing  of  man  in  him  but  the  flesh,  to  which 
the  Xoyos,  or  word,  was  joined,  which  was  the  same  as  the 
soul  in  us.  The  Arians  were  first  condemned  and  ana- 
thematized by  a  council  at  Alexandria,  in  320,  under 
Alexander,  bishop  of  that  city,  who  accused  Arius  of 
impiety,  and  caused  him  to  be  expelled  from  the  commu- 
nion of  the  church ;  and  afterwards  by  380  fathers  in  the 
general  council  of  Nice,  assembled  by  Constantine,  in  325. 
His  doctrine,  however,  was  not  extinguished ;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  became  the  reigning  religion,  especially  in  the  east. 

Arius  was  recalled  from  banishment  by  Constantine  in 
two  or  three  years  after  the  council  of  Nice,  and  the  laws 
that  had  been  enacted  against  him  were  repealed.  Not- 
withstanding this,  Athanasius,  then  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
refused  to  admit  him  and  his  followers  to  communion. 
This  so  enraged  them,  that,  by  their  interest  at  court,  they 
procured  that  prelate  to  be  deposed  and  banished ;  but  the 
church  of  Alexandria  still  refusing  to  admit  Arius  into 
their  communion,  the  emperor  sent  for  him  to  (Jonstauti- 


244  ARIAN8. 

nople ;  where  upon  delivering  in  a  fresh  confession  of  his 
faith  in  terms  less  offensive,  the  emperor  commanded  him 
to  be  received  into  their  communion ;  but  that  very  even- 
ing, it  is  said,  Arius  died  as  his  friends  were  conducting 
him  in  triumph  to  the  great  church  of  Constantinople. 

Arius,  pressed  by  a  natural  want,  stepped  aside,  but 
expired  on  the  spot,  his  bowels  gushing  out.  The  Arian 
party,  however,  found  a  protector  in  Constantinus,  who 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  East.  They  underwent  various 
revolutions  and  persecutions  under  succeeding  emperors, 
till,  at  length,  Theodosius  the  Great  exerted  every  effort 
to  suppress  them.  Their  doctrine  was  carried,  in  the  fifth 
century,  into  Africa,  under  the  Vandals ;  and  into  Asia 
under  the  Goths.  Italy,  Gaul,  and  Spain,  were  also 
deeply  infected  with  it;  and  towards  the  commencement 
of  the  sixth  century,  it  was  triumphant  in  many  parts  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe ;  but  it  sunk  almost  at  once, 
when  the  Vandals  were  driven  out  of  Africa,  and  the 
Goths  out  of  Italy  by  the  arms  of  Justinian.  However,  it 
revived  again  in  Italy,  under  the  protection  of  the  Lom- 
bards, in  the  seventh  century,  and  was  not  extinguished 
till  about  the  end  of  the  eighth.  Arianism  was  again 
revived  in  the  West  by  Se'rvetus,  in  1531,  for  which  he 
suffered  death. 

After  this,  the  doctrine  got  footing  in  Geneva  and  in 
Poland;  but  at  length  degenerated  in  a  great  measure 
into  Socinianism.  Erasmus,  it  is  thought,  aimed  at 
reviving  it,  in  his  commentaries  on  the  New  Testament ; 
and  the  learned  Grotius  seems  to  lean  that  way.  Mr. 
"VWiiston  was  one  of  the  first  divines  who  revived  this  con- 
troversy in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  followed  by 
Dr.  Clarke,  who  was  chiefly  opposed  by  Dr.  Waterland. 
Those  who  hold  the  doctrine  which  is  usually  called  Low 
Arianism ^  say  that  Christ  pre-existed;  but  not  as  the 


ARMENIANS.  245 

eternal  Logos  of  the  Father,  or  as  the  being  by  whom  he 
made  the  worlds,  and  had  intercourse  with  the  patriarchs, 
or  as  having  any  certain  rank  or  employment  whatever  in 
the  divine  dispensations.  In  modern  times,  the  term  Arian 
is  indiscriminately  applied  to  those  who  consider  Jesus 
eimply  subordinate  to  the  Father.  Some  of  them  believe 
Christ  to  have  been  the  creator  of  the  world ;  but  they  all 
maintain  that  he  existed  previously  to  his  incarnation, 
though  in  his  pre-existent  state  they  assign  him  different 
degrees  of  dignity.  Hence  the  terms  High  and  Low  Arian. 


ARMENIANS. 

THE  Armenians  are  the  inhabitants  of  Armenia,  whose 
religion  is  the  Christian  of  the  Eutychian  sect ;  that  is, 
they  hold  but  one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ.  They  assert 
also  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father 
only.  They  believe  that  Christ,  at  his  descent  into  hell, 
freed  the  souls  of  the  damned  from  thence,  and  reprieved 
them  to  the  end  of  the  woild,  when  they  shall  be  remanded 
to  eternal  flimes.  They  believe  that  the  souls  of  the 
righteous  shall  not  be  admitted  to  the  beatific  vision  till 
after  the  resurrection,  notwithstanding  which  they  pray 
to  departed  saints,  adore  their  pictures,  and  burn  lamps 
before  them.  The  Armenian  clergy  consist  of  patriarchs, 
archbishops,  doctors,  secular  priests,  and  monks.  The 
Armenian  monks  are  of  the  order  of  St.  Basil ;  and  every 
Wednesday  and  Friday  they  eat  neither  fish,  nor  eggs, 
nor  oil,  nor  anything  made  of  milk ;  and  during  Lent  they 
live  upon  nothing  but  roots.  They  have  seven  sacraments, 
baptism,  confirmation,  penance,  the  eucharist,  extreme 
21 » 


246  ARMINIATS'S. 

unction,  orders,  and  matrimony.  They  admit  infants  to 
the  communion  at  two  or  three  months  old.  They  seem 
to  place  the  chief  part  of  their  religion  in  fastings  arid 
abstinences;  and,  among  the  clergy,  the  higher  the  degree, 
the  lower  they  must  live ;  insomuch,  that  it  is  said  the 
archbishops  live  on  nothing  but  pulse.  They  consecrate 
holy  water  but  once  a  year,  at  which  time  every  one  fills 
a  pot  and  carries  it  home,  which  brings  in  a  considerable 
revenue  to  the  church. 


ARMINIANS. 

THE  Arminians  are  persons  who  follow  the  doctrines  of 
Arminius,  who  was  pastor  at  Amsterdam,  and  afterwards 
professor  of  divinity  at  Leyden.  Arminius  had  been 
educated  in  the  opinions  of  Calvin ;  but,  thinking  the 
doctrine  of  that  great  man  with  regard  to  free  will,  pre- 
destination, and  grace,  too  severe,  he  began  to  express  his 
doubts  concerning  them  in  the  year  1591  ;  and,  upon 
further  inquiry,  adopted  the  sentiments  of  those  whose 
religious  system  extends  the  love  of  the  Supreme  Being 
and  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ  to  all  mankind.  The 
Arminians  are  also  called  Remonstrants,  because,  in  1611, 
they  presented  a  remonstrance  to  the  states-general, 
wherein  they  state  their  grievances,  and  pray  for  relief. 

The  distinguishing  tenets  of  the  Arminians  may  be 
comprised  in  the  five  following  articles  relative  to  predes- 
tination, universal  redemption,  the  corruption  of  man, 
conversion,  and  perseverance,  viz. : 

I.  That  God,  from  all  eternity,  determined  to  bestow 
salvation  on  those  who  he  foresaw  would  persevere  unto 
the  end ;  and  to  inflict  everlasting  punishments  on  those 
who  should  continue  their  unbelief,  and  resist  his  divine 


ARM1N1ANS.  247 

snccors ;  so  that  election  was  conditional,  and  reprobation 
in  like  manner  the  result  of  foreseen  infidelity  and  perse- 
vering wickedness. 

II.  That  Jesus  Christ,  by  his  sufferings  and  death,  made 
an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  all  mankind  in  general,  and 
of  every  individual  in  particular ;  that,  however,  none  but 
those  who  believe  in  him  can  be  partakers  of  divine  benefits. 

III.  That  true  faith  cannot  proceed  from  the  exercise 
of  our  natural  faculties  and  powers,  nor  from  the  force 
and  operation  of  free  will ;  since  man,  in  consequence  of 
his  natural  corruption,  is  incapable  either  of  thinking  or 
doing  any  good  thing  ;  and  that,  therefore,  it  is  necessary, 
in  order  to  his  conversion  and  salvation,  that  he  be  re- 
generated and  renewed  by  the   operations    of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  which  is  the  gift  of  God  through  Jesus  Christ. 

IV.  That  this  divine  grace  or  energy  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
begins  and  perfects  everything  that  can  be  called  good  in 
man,  and,  consequently,  all  good  works  are  to  be  attributed 
to  God  alone ;  that,  nevertheless,  this  grace  is  offered  to 
all,  and  does  not  force  men  to  act  against  their  inclinations, 
but  may  be  resisted  and  rendered  ineffectual  by  the  per- 
verse will  of  the  impenitent  sinner.    Some  modern  Armin- 
ians    interpret    this    and  the    last    article  with  a  greater 
latitude. 

V.  That  God  gives  to  the  truly  faithful,  who  are  regene- 
rated by  his  grace,  the  means  of  preserving  themselves  in 
this  state.     The  first  Arminians,  indeed,  had  some  doubt 
with  respect  to  the  closing  part  of  this  article ;  but  their 
followers  uniformly  maintain    "  that  the  regenerate  may 
lose  true  justifying  faith,  fall  from  a  state  of  grace,  and 
die  in  their  sins." 

After  the  appointment  of  Arminius  to  the  theological 
chair  at  Leyden,  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  avow  and  vin- 
dicate the  principles  which  he  hid  embraced;  arid  the 


248  ARMINIANS. 

Freedom  with  which    he   published    and    defended   tnenv 
exposed  him  to  the  resentment  of  those  that  adhered  to 
the  theological  system  of  Geneva,  which  then  prevailed  in 
Holland ;  hut  his  principal  opponent  was  Gomar,  his  col- 
league.    The  controversy  which  was  thus  begun  became 
more    general  after  the  death  of  Arminius,  in  the  year 
1609,  and  threatened  to  involve  the  United  Provinces  in 
civil  discord.     The  Arminian  tenets  gained  ground  under 
the  mild  and  favorable  treatment  of  the  magistrates  of 
Holland,  and  were  adopted  by  several  persons  of  merit 
and  distinction.     The  Calvanists    or  Gomarists,  as  they 
were  now  called,  appealed  to  a  national  synod ;  accord- 
ingly, the  synod  of  Dort  convened,  by  order  of  the  states- 
general,  in  1618 ;  and  was  composed  of  ecclesiastic  depu- 
ties from  the  United  Provinces,  as  well  as  from  the  re- 
formed churches  of  England,  Hessia,  Bremen,  Switzerland, 
and  the  Palntinate.     The  principal  advocate  in  favor  of 
the  Arminians  was  Episcopius,  who  at  that  time  was  pro- 
fessor of   divinity  at  Leyden.     It  was  first  proposed  to 
discuss  the  principal  subjects  in  dispute,  that  the  Arminiang 
should  be  allowed  to  state  and  vindicate  the  grounds  on 
which  their  opinions  were  founded ;  but,  some  difference 
arising  as  to  the  proper  mode  of  conducting  the  debate, 
the  Arminians  were   excluded   from   the  assembly,  their 
case  was  tried  in  their  absence,  and  they  were  pronounced 
guilty  of  pestilential  errors,  and  condemned  as  corrupters 
of  the  true  religion.    A  curious  account  of  the  proceedings 
of  the  above  synod  may  be  seen   in   a  series  of  letters 
written    by   Mr.  John    Hales,  who  was   present   on   the 
occasion. 

In  consequence  of  the  above-mentioned  decision,  th« 
Arminians  were  considered  as  enemies  to  their  country 
and  its  established  religion,  and  were  much  persecuted. 
They  were  treated  with  great  severity,  and  deprived  of  all 


BAXTERIANS  249 

their  posts  and  employments;  their  ministers  were  silenced, 
and  their  congregations  were  suppressed.  The  great 
Barneveldt  was  beheaded  on  a  scaffold ;  and  the  learned 
Grotius,  being  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment,  fled, 
and  took  refuge  in  France. 

After  the  death  of  Prince  Maurice,  who  had  been  a 
violent  partisan  in  favor  of  the  Gomarists,  in  the  year 
1625,  the  Arminian  exiles  were  restored  to  their  formei 
reputation  and  tranquillity ;  and,  under  the  toleration  of 
the  state,  they  erected  churches  and  founded  a  college  at 
Amsterdam,  appointing  Episcopius  the  first  theological 
professor.  The  Arminian  system  has  very  much  prevailed 
in  England  since  the  time  of  Archbishop  Laud,  and  its 
votaries  in  other  countries  are  very  numerous.  It  is 
generally  supposed  that  a  majority  of  the  clergy  in  loth 
the  established  churches  of  Great  Britain  favor  the 
Arminian  system,  notwithstanding  their  articles  are  strhtly 
Calvinistic.  The  name  of  Mr.  John  Wesley  need  haidly 
be  mentioned  here.  Every  one  knows  what  an  advocate 
he  was  for  the  tenets  of  Arminius,  and  the  success  he  met 
with. 


THE  BAXTERIANS 

ARE  so  called  from  the  learned  and  pious  Mr.  Richard 
Baxter,  who  was  born  in  the  year  1615.  His  design  was 
to  reconcile  Calvin  and  Arminius :  for  this  purpose  he 
formed  a  middle  scheme  between  their  systems.  He 
taught  that  God  had  elected  some,  whom  he  is  determined 
to  save,  without  any  foresight  of  their  good  works :  and 
that  others  to  whom  the  gospel  is  preached  have  common 
grace,  which,  if  they  improve,  they  shall  obtain  saving 
grace,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  Arminius.  This  deno- 


250  BAXTERIANS. 

urination  own,  with  Calvin,  that  the  merits  of  Christ's 
death  are  to  be  applied  to  believers  only ;  but  they  also 
assert  that  all  men  are  in  a  state  capable  of  salvation. 

Mr.  Baxter  maintains  that  there  may  be  a  certainty  of 
perseverance  here,  and  yet  he  cannot  tell  whether  a  man 
may  not  have  so  weak  a  degree  of  saving  grace  as  to  lose 
it  again. 

In  order  to  prove  that  the  death  of  Christ  has  put  all  in 
a  state  capable  of  salvation,  the  following  arguments  are 
alleged  by  this  learned  author :  —  1.  It  was  the  nature  of 
all  mankind  which  Christ  assumed  at  his  incarnation,  and 
the  sins  of  all  mankind  were  the  occasion  of  his  suffering. 
—  2.  It  was  to  Adam,  as  the  common  father  of  lapsed 
mankind,  that  God  made  the  promise  (Gen.  iii.  15).  The 
conditional  new  covenant  does  equally  give  Christ,  pardon, 
and  life  to  all  mankind,  on  condition  of  acceptance.  The 
conditional  grant  is  universal :  Whoever  believeth  shall  be 
saved. —  3.  It  is  not  to  the  elect  only,  but  to  all  mankind, 
that  Christ  has  commanded  his  ministers  to  proclaim  his 
gospel,  and  offer  the  benefits  of  his  procuring. 

There  are,  Mr.  Baxter  allows,  certain  fruits  of  Christ's 
death  which  are  proper  to  the  elect  only: — 1.  Grace  even- 
tually worketh  in  them  true  faith,  repentance,  conversion, 
and  union  with  Christ  as  his  living  members.  —  2.  The 
actual  forgiveness  of  sin  as  to  the  spiritual  and  eternal 
punishment.  —  3.  Our  reconciliation  with  God,  and  adop- 
tion and  right  to  the  heavenly  inheritance. — 4.  The  Spirit 
of  Christ  to  dwell  in  us  and  sanctify  us,  by  a  habit  of 
divine  love,  Rom.  viii.  9-13;  Gal.  v.  6.  —  5.  Employment 
m  holy,  acceptable  service,  and  access  in  prayer,  with  a 
promise  of  being  heard  through  Christ,  Heb.  ii.  5,  6; 
John  xiv.  13.  —  6.  Well-grounded  hopes  of  salvation, 
peace  of  conscience,  and  spiritual  communion  with  the 
Church  mystical  in  heaven  and  earth,  Rom.  v.  12 ;  Heb. 


SHAKERS.  251 

xii.  22.  —  7.  A  special  interest  in  Christ  and  intercession 
with  the  Father,  Rom.  viii.  32,  33.  8.  Resurrection  unto 
life,  and  justification  in  judgment ;  glorification  of  the  soul 
at  death,  and  of  the  body  at  the  resurrection,  Phil.  iii.  20, 
21 ;  2  Cor.  v.  1,  2,  3. 

Christ  has  made  a  conditional  deed  of  gift  of  these 
benefits  to  all  mankind ;  but  the  elect  only  accept  and 
possess  them.  Hence  he  infers  that,  though  Christ  never 
absolutely  intended  or  decreed  that  his  death  should  even- 
tually put  all  men  in  possession  of  those  benefits,  yet  he 
did  intend  and  decree  that  all  men  should  have  a  condi- 
tional gift  of  them  by  his  death. 

Baxter,  it  is  said,  wrote  one  hundred  and  twenty  books, 
and  had  sixty  written  against  him.  Twenty  thousand  of 
his  Call  to  the  Unconverted  were  sold  in  one  year.  Ho 
told  a  friend  that  six  brothers  were  converted  by  reading 
that  Call.  The  eminent  Mr.  Elliott,  of  New  England, 
translated  this  tract  into  the  Indian  tongue.  A  young 
Indian  prince  was  so  taken  with  it,  that  he  read  it  with 
tears,  arid  died  with  it  in  his  hand. 


SHAKERS. 

A  SECT  which  was  instituted  about  the  year  1774,  in 
England.  Ann  Lee,  whom  they  style  the  Elect  Lady, 
is  the  head  of  this  party.  They  assert  that  she  is  the 
woman  spoken  of  in  the  12th  chapter  of  Revelations,  and 
that  she  speaks  seventy-two  tongues ;  and  though  those 
tongues  are  unintelligible  to  the  living,  she  converses  with 
the  dead,  who  understand  her  language.  They  add  further, 
that  she  is  the  irother  of  all  the  elect,  and  that  she  travails 
for  the  whole  world ;  that,  in  fine,  no  blessing  can  descend 


252  SHAKERS. 

to  any  person  but  only  by  and  through  her,  and  that  in 
the  way  of  her  being  possessed  of  their  sins  by  their  con- 
fessing and  repenting  of  them,  one  by  one,  according  to 
her  direction.  They  vary  in  their  exercises  :  their  heavy 
dancing,  as  it  is  called,  is  performed  by  a  perpetual  spring- 
ing from  the  house  floor,  about  four  inches  up  and  down, 
both  in  the  men's  and  women's  apartments,  moving  about 
with  extraordinary  transport,  singing  sometimes  one  at  a 
time,  and  sometimes  more.  This  elevation  affects  the 
nerves,  so  that  they  have  intervals  of  shuddering,  as  if  they 
were  in  a  violent  fit  of  the  ague.  They  sometimes  clap 
their  hands,  and  leap  so  high  as  to  strike  the  joists  above 
their  heads.  They  throw  off  their  outside  garment  in  these 
exercises,  and  spend  their  strength  very  cheerfully  this 
way :  their  chief  speaker  often  calls  for  their  attention, 
when  they  all  stop,  and  hear  some  harangue,  and  then 
begin  dancing  again.  They  assert  that  their  dancing  ia 
the  token  of  the  great  joy  and  happiness  of  the  Jerusalem 
state,  and  denotes  the  victory  over  sin.  One  of  their  most 
favorite  exertions  is  turning  round  very  swiftly  for  an  hour 
or  two.  This,  they  say,  is  to  show  the  great  power  of  God. 
Such  is  the  account  which  different  writers  have  given  ua 
of  this  sect ;  but  others  observe  that  though,  at  first,  they 
used  these  violent  gesticulations,  now  they  have  "  a  regular, 
solemn,  uniform  dance,  or  genuflection,  to  a  regular,  solemn 
hymn,  which  is  sung  by  the  elders,  and  as  regularly  con- 
ducted as  a  proper  band  of  music."  See  New  York  Theol. 
Mag.  for  Nov.  and  Dec.  1795. 

SHAKERS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

This  society  is  sometimes  called  the  Millennial  Church. 
They  are  denominated  /Shakers,  from  tbe  dolent  bodily 
commotions  with  which  they  are  sometimes  seized.  In 
1780,  ten  or  twelve  individuals  came  to  this  country  from 


THEOPHILANTHBOPISTS.  253 

England.  In  1787,  they  formed  themselves  into  a  society 
at  New  Lebanon,  New  York,  and  established  a  community 
of  goods  in  all  respects.  Their  general  employments  are 
agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  They  are  remarkable 
for  their  neatness,  sobriety,  honesty,  and  harmlessness. 
Their  peculiar  manner  of  worship  is  by  dancing.  Societies 
of  Shakers  are  formed  at  Alfred  and  New  Gloucester,  Me.; 
Canterbury  and  Enfield,  N.  H. ;  Shirley,  Harvard,  Tyring- 
ham,  and  Hancock,  Mass. ;  Enfield,  Conn. ;  Watervliet  and 
New  Lebanon,  N.  Y. ;  Union  Village  and  Watervliet,  Ohio ; 
Pleasant  Hill  and  South  Union,  Ky.  Number  of  societies 
16 ;  preachers,  45 ;  population,  5,400. 


THEOPHILANTHROPISTS 

ARE  a  sect  of  Deists  who,  in  September,  1796,  published 
at  Paris  a  sort  of  catechism  or  directory  for  social  worship, 
under  the  title  of  Manuel  des  Theanthrophiles.  This  reli- 
gious breviary  found  favor ;  the  congregation  became  nu- 
merous ;  and  in  the  second  edition  of  their  Manuel  they 
assumed  the  less  harsh  denomination  of  Theophilanthro- 
pists,  i.  <?.,  lovers  of  God  and  man.  According  to  them, 
the  temple  the  most  worthy  of  the  Divinity  is  the  universe. 
Abandoned  sometimes  under  the  vault  of  heaven  to  the 
contemplation  of  the  beauties  of  nature,  they  render  its 
Author  the  homage  of  adoration  and  of  gratitude.  They 
nevertheless  have  temples  erected  by  the  hands  of  men,  in 
which  it  is  more  commodious  for  them  to  assemble,  to  hear 
lessons  concerning  his  wisdom.  Certain  moral  inscriptions, 
a  simple  altar,  on  which  they  deposit  a  sign  of  gratitude 
lor  the  benefits  of  the  Creator,  such  flowers  or  fruits  as  the 
22 


254  THEOPHILANTHROPISTS 

seasons  afford,  a  tribute  for  the  lectures  and  discourses, 
form  the  whole  of  the  ornaments  of  their  temples. 

The  first  inscription,  placed  above  the  altar,  recalls  to 
remembrance  the  two  religious  dogmas  which  are  the  foun- 
dation of  their  moral. 

First  inscription. — We  believe  in  the  existence  of  God, 
in  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  Second  inscription. — Wor- 
ship God,  cherish  your  kind,  render  yourselves  useful  to 
your  country.  Third  inscription.  —  Good  is  everything 
which  tends  to  the  preservation  or  the  perfection  of  man. 
Evil  is  everything  which  tends  to  destroy  or  deteriorate 
him.  Fourth  inscription. — Children,  honor  your  fathers 
and  mothers;  obey  them  with  affection,  comfort  their 
old  age.  Fathers  and  mothers,  instruct  your  children. 
Fifth  inscription. — Wives,  regard  your  husbands,  the  chiefs 
of  your  houses.  Husbands,  love  your  wives,  and  render 
yourselves  reciprocally  happy. 

From  the  concluding  part  of  the  Manuel  of  the  Theophi- 
lanthropists,  we  may  learn  something  more  of  their  senti- 
ments. "  If  any  one  ask  you,"  say  they,  "  what  is  the 
origin  of  your  religion  and  of  your  worship,  you  can  answer 
him  thus :  Open  the  most  ancient  books  which  are  known, 
seek  there  what  was  the  religion,  what  the  worship  of  the 
first  human  beings  of  which  history  has  preserved  the  re- 
membrance. There  you  will  see  that  their  religion  was 
what  we  now  call  natural  religion,  because  it  has  for  its 
principle  even  the  Author  of  nature.  It  is  he  that  has 
vngraven  it  in  the  heart  of  the  first  human  beings,  in  ours, 
n  that  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth ;  this  religion, 
which  consists  in  worshipping  God  and  cherishing  our  kind, 
is  what  we  express  by  one  single  word,  that  of  Theophi- 
lanthropy.  Thus  our  religion  is  that  of  our  first  parents ; 
it  is  yours  ;  it  is  ours ;  it  is  the  universal  religion.  As  to 
our  worship,  it  is  also  that  of  our  first  fathers.  See  even 


THEOPHILANTHROPISTS.  255 

m  the  most  ancient  writings,  that  the  exterior  signs  by 
which  they  rendered  their  homage  to  the  Creator  were  of 
great  simplicity.  They  dressed  for  him  an  altar  of  earth  ; 
they  offered  him,  in  sign  of  their  gratitude  and  of  their 
submission,  some  of  the  productions  which  they  held  of  hia 
liberal  hand.  The  fathers  exhorted  their  children  to  virtue ; 
they  all  encouraged  one  another,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Divinity,  to  the  accomplishment  of  their  duties.  This  simple 
worship  the  sages  of  all  nations  have  not  ceased  to  profess, 
and  they  have  transmitted  it  down'to  us  without  inter- 
ruption. 

"  If  they  yet  ask  you  of  whom  you  hold  your  mission, 
answer,  we  hold  it  of  God  himself,  who,  in  giving  us  two 
arms  to  aid  our  kind,  has  also  given  us  intelligence  to  mu- 
tually enlighten  us,  and  the  love  of  good  to  bring  us  to- 
gether to  virtue ;  of  God,  who  has  given  experience  and 
wisdom  to  the  aged  to  guide  the  young,  and  authority  to 
fathers  to  conduct  their  children. 

"  If  they  are  not  struck  with  the  force  of  those  reasons, 
do  not  farther  discuss  the  subject,  and  do  not  engage  your- 
self in  controversies,  which  tend  to  diminish  the  love  of  our 
neighbors.  Our  principles  are  the  Eternal  Truth ;  they 
will  subsist,  whatever  individuals  may  support  or  attack 
them,  and  the  efforts  of  the  wicked  will  not  even  prevail 
against  them.  Rest  firmly  attached  to  them,  without  attack- 
ing or  defending  any  religious  system ;  and  remember  that 
similar  discussions  have  never  produced  good,  and  that 
they  have  often  tinged  the  earth  with  the  blood  of  men. 
Let  us  lay  aside  systems,  and  apply  ourselves  to  doing 
good  ;  it  is  the  only  road  to  happiness."  So  much  for  the 
divinity  of  the  Theophilanthropists ;  a  system  entirely  de- 
fective, because  it  wants  the  true  foundation,  —  the  word 
of  God;  the  grand  rule  of  all  our  actions,  and  the  only 
basis  on  which  our  hopes  and  prospects  of  success  can  be 
built. 


256  GNOSTICS. 


GNOSTICS. 

THE  Gnostics  were  ancient  heretics,  famous  from  the 
first   rise   of    Christianity,    principally   in   the   east.     It 
appears  from  several  passages  of  Scripture,  particularly 
1  John  ii.  18 ;  1  Tim.  vi.  20 ;  Col.  ii.  8 ;  that  many  per- 
sons were  infected  with  the  Gnostic   heresy  in  the  first 
century ;  though  the'sect  did  not  render  itself  conspicuous, 
either  for  numbers  or  reputation,  before  the  time  of  Adrian, 
when  some  writers  erroneously  date  its  rise.     The  name 
was  adopted  by  this  sect,  on  the  presumption  that  they 
were  the  only  persons  who  had  the  true  knowledge  of 
Christianity.     Accordingly,    they   looked    on    all    other 
Christians  as  simple,  ignorant,  and  barbarous  persons,  who 
explained  and  interpreted  the  sacred  writings  in  a  low, 
literal,  and  unedifying  signification.    At  first,  the  Gnostics 
were  the  only  philosophers  and  wits  of  those  times,  who 
formed   for   themselves    a   peculiar    system   of  theology, 
agreeable  to  the  philosophy  of  Pythagoras  and  Plato ;  to 
which   they   accommodated   all   their    interpretations   of 
Scripture.     But  Gnostics  afterwards  became  a  generical 
name,  comprehending  divers  sects  and  parties  of  heretics, 
who  rose  in  the  first  centuries ;  and  who,  though  they  dif- 
fered among  themselves  as  to  circumstances,  yet  all  agreed 
tu  some  common  principles.     They  corrupted  the  doctrine 
of  the  Gospel  by  a  profane  mixture  of  the  tenets  of  the 
oriental  philosophy,  concerning  the  origin  of  evil  and  the 
creation  of  the  world,  with  its  divine  truths.    Such  were  the 
Valentinians,  Simonians,  Carpocratians,  Nicolaitans,  &c. 

Gnostic  sometimes  also  occurs  in  a  good  sense,  in  the 
ancient  ecclesiastical  writers,  particularly  Clemens  Alex- 
andria us,  who  in  the  person  of  his  Gnostic  describes  the 


GNOSTICS.  257 

characters  and  qualities  of  a  perfect  Christian.  This  point 
he  labors  in  the  seventh  book  of  his  Stromata,  where  h« 
shows  that  none  but  the  Gnostic  or  learned  person  ha* 
any  true  religion.  He  affirms  that,  were  it  possible  for 
the  knowledge  of  God  to  be  separated  from  eternal  salva- 
tion, the  Gnostic  would  make  no  scruple  to  choose  the 
knowledge ;  and  that  if  God  would  promise  him  impunity 
in  d  ring  anything  that  he  has  once  spoken  against,  or  ofiei 
him  heaven  on  those  terms,  he  would  never  alter  a  whit  of 
his  measures.  In  this  sense  the  father  uses  Gnostics,  in 
opposition  to  the  heretics  of  the  same  name  ;  affirming  that 
the  true  Gnostic  is  grown  old  in  the  study  of  the  holy 
Scripture,  and  that  he  preserves  the  orthodox  doctrine  of 
the  apostles,  and  of  the  church  ;  whereas  the  false  Gnostic 
abandons  all  the  apostolical  traditions  as  imagining  himself 
wiser  than  the  apostles. 

Gnostics  was  sometimes  also  more  particularly  used  for 
the  successors  of  the  Nicolaitans  and  Carpocratians,  in  the 
second  century,  upon  their  laying  aside  the  names  of  the 
first  authors.  Such  as  would  be  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  all  their  doctrines,  reveries,  and  visions,  may  consult 
/ft.  Ireneeus,  Tertuttian,  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  Origin, 
and  St.  Epiphanius  ;  particularly  the  first  of  these  writers, 
who  relates  their  sentiments  at  large,  and  confutes  them. 
Indeed  he  dwells  more  on  the  Valentinians  than  any  other 
sect  of  Gnostics ;  but  he  shows  the  general  principles 
whereon  all  their  mistaken  opinions  were  founded,  and  the 
method  they  followed  in  explaining  Scripture.  He  accuses 
them  of  introducing  into  religion  certain  vain  and  ridicu- 
lous genealogies,  i.  e.  a  kind  of  divine  processions  or  ema- 
nations, which  had  no  other  foundation  but  in  their  own 
wild  imagination.  The  Gnostics  confessed  that  these 
aeons,  or  emanations,  were  nowhere  expressly  delivered  in 
the  sacred  writings ;  but  insisted  that  Jesus  Christ  had 
22*  R 


258  GNOSTICB. 

Tntimated  them  in  parables  to  such  as  could  understand 
them.  They  built  their  theology  not  only  on  the  Gospels 
and  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  but  also  on  the  law  of  Moses 
and  the  prophets.  These  last  were  peculiarly  serviceable 
to  them,  on  account  of  the  allegories  and  allusions  with 
which  they  abound,  which  are  capable  of  different  inter- 
pretations, though  their  doctrine  concerning  the  creation 
of  the  world  by  one  or  more  inferior  beings  of  an  evil  or 
imperfect  nature,  led  them  to  deny  the  divine  authority  of 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  contradicted  this 
idle  fiction,  and  filled  them  with  an  abhorrence  of  Moses 
and  the  religion  he  taught ;  alleging  that  he  was  actuated 
by  the  malignant  author  of  this  world,  who  consulted  his 
own  glory  and  authority,  and  not  the  real  advantage  of 
men.  Their  persuasion  that  evil  resided  in  matter,  as  its 
centre  and  source,  made  them  treat  the  body  with  contempt, 
discourage  marriage,  and  reject  the  doctrine  of  the  resur- 
rection of  the  body,  and  its  reunion  with  the  immortal 
spirit.  Their  notion  that  malevolent  genii  presided  in 
nature,  and  occasioned  diseases  and  calamities,  wars  and 
desolations,  induced  them  to  apply  themselves  to  the  study 
of  magic,  in  order  to  weaken  the  powers,  or  suspend  the 
influence  of  these  malignant  agents.  The  Gnostics  con- 
sidered Jesus  Christ  as  the  Son  of  God,  and  inferior  to  the 
Father,  who  came  into  the  world  for  the  rescue  and  hap- 
piness of  miserable  mortals,  oppressed  by  matter  and  evil 
beings;  but  they  rejected  our  Lord's  humanity,  on  the 
principle  that  everything  corporeal  is  essentially  and  in- 
trinsically evil ;  and  therefore  the  greatest  part  of  them 
denied  the  reality  of  his  sufferings.  They  set  a  great  value 
on  the  beginning  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  where  they 
fancied  they  saw  a  great  deal  of  their  aeons,  or  emanations, 
under  the  terms,  the  word,  the  life,  the  light,  &c.  They 
divided  all  nature  into  three  kinds  of  beings,  viz. :  hylic. 


GNOSTICS.  25t) 

or  material ;  psyrJiic,  or  animal ;  and  pneumatic,  or  spi- 
ritual. On  the  like  principle  they  also  distinguished  three 
sorts  of  men ;  material,  animal,  and  spiritual.  The  first, 
who  were  material,  and  incapable  of  knowledge,  inevitably 
perished,  both  soul  and  body ;  the  third,  such  as  the 
Gnostics  themselves  pretended  to  be,  were  all  certainly 
saved ;  the  psychic,  or  animal,  who  were  the  middle 
between  the  other  !wo,  were  capable  either  of  being  saved 
or  damned,  according  to  their  good  or  evil  actions.  With 
regard  to  their  moral  doctrines  and  conduct,  they  were 
much  divided.  The  greatest  part  of  this  sect  adopted  very 
austere  rules  of  life,  recommended  rigorous  abstinence,  and 
prescribed  severe  bodily  mortifidations,  with  a  view  of 
purifying  and  exalting  the  mind.  However,  some  mnin- 
tained  that  there  was  no  moral  difference  in  human  actions ; 
and  thus  confounding  right  with  wrong,  they  gave  a  loose 
rein  to  all  the  passions,  and  asserted  the  innocence  of  fol- 
lowing blindly  all  their  motions,  and  of  living  by  their 
tumultuous  dictates.  They  supported  their  opinions  and 
practice  by  various  authorities  ;  some  referred  to  fictitious 
and  apocryphal  writings  of  Adam,  Abraham,  Zoroaster, 
Christ,  and  his  apostles ;  others  boasted  that  they  had 
deduced  their  sentiments  from  secret  doctrines  of  Christ, 
concealed  from  the  vulgar ;  others  affirmed  that  they 
arrived  at  superior  degrees  of  wisdom  by  an  innate  vigor 
of  mind  ;  and  others  asserted  that  they  were  instructed  in 
these  mysterious  parts  of  theological  science  by  Theudas, 
a  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  and  by  Matthias,  one  of  the  friends 
of  our  Lord.  The  tenets  of  the  ancient  Gnostics  were 
revived  in  Spain,  in  the  fourth  century,  by  a  sect  called 
the  Priscillianists.  At  length  the  name  G-nostic,  which 
originally  was  glorious,  became  infamous,  by  the  idle 
opinions  and  dissolute  lives  of  the  persons  who  bore  it. 


260  HUSSITES. 


HUSSITES, 

A  PARTY  of  reformers,  the  followers  of  John  Huss. — John 
Huss.  from  whom  the  Hussites  take  their  name,  was  horn 
in  a  little  village  in  Bohemia,  called  Huss,  and  lived  at 
Prague  in  the  highest  reputation,  both  on  account  of  the 
sanctity  of  his  manners  and  the  purity  of  his  doctrine. 
He  was  distinguished  by  his  uncommon  erudition  and  elo- 
quence ;  and  performed  at  the  same  time  the  functions  of 
professor  of  divinity  in  the  university,  and  of  ordinary 
pastor  in  the  church  of  that  city.  He  adopted  the  send 
ments  of  Wickliffe  and  the  Waldenses ;  and,  in  the  year 
1407,  began  openly  to  oppose  and  preach  against  divers 
errors  in  doctrine,  as  well  as  corruptions  in  point  of  disci- 
pline, then  reigning  in  the  Church.  Huss  likewise  endea- 
vored to  the  utmost  of  his  power  to  withdraw  the  univer- 
sity of  Prague  from  the  jurisdiction  of  Gregory  XII., 
whom  the  king  of  Bohemia  had  hitherto  acknowledged  as 
the  true  and  lawful  head  of  the  Church.  This  occasioned 
a  violent  quarrel  between  the  incensed  Archbishop  of 
Prague  and  the  zealous  Reformer,  which  the  latter  inflamed 
and  augmented  from  day  to  day,  by  his  pathetic  exclama- 
tions against  the  court  of  Rome,  and  the  corruption  that 
prevailed  among  the  sacerdotal  order. 

There  were  other  circumstances  that  contributed  to 
mflame  the  resentment  of  the  clergy  against  him.  He 
adopted  the  philosophical  opinions  of  the  Realists,  and 
vehemently  opposed  and  even  persecuted  the  Nominalists, 
whose  number  and  influence  were  considerable  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Prague.  He  also  multiplied  the  number  of  his 
enemies  in  the  year  1408,  by  procuring  through  his  own 


HUSSITES.  261 

credit,  a  sentence  in  favor  of  the  Bohemians,  who  disputed 
with  the  Germans  concerning  the  number  of  suffrages 
which  their  respective  nations  were  entitled  to  in  all  mat- 
ters that  were  carried  hy  election  in  this  university.  In 
consequence  of  a  decree  obtained  in  favor  of  the  former, 
which  restored  them  to  their  constitutional  right  of  three 
suffrages,  usurped  by  the  latter,  the  Germans  withdrew 
from  Prague,  and  in  the  year  1409,  founded  a  new  aca- 
demy at  Leipsic.  This  event  no  sooner  happened  than 
Huss  began  to  inveigh,  with  greater  freedom  than  he  had 
done  before,  against  the  vices  and  corruptions  of  the 
clergy ;  and  to  recommend  in  a  public  manner  the  writings 
and  opinions  of  Wickliffe,  as  far  as  they  related  to  the 
papal  hierarchy,  the  despotism  of  the  court  of  Rome,  and 
the  corruption  of  the  clergy.  Hence,  an  accusation  was 
brought  against  him,  in  the  year  1410,  before  the  tribunal 
of  John  XXIII.,  by  whom  he  was  solemnly  expelled  from 
the  communion  of  the  Church.  Notwithstanding  this  sen* 
tence  of  excommunication,  he  proceeded  to  expose  the 
Romish  Church  with  a  fortitude  and  zeal  that  were  almost 
universally  applauded. 

This  eminent  man,  whose  piety  was  equally  sincere  and 
fervent,  though  his  zeal  was  perhaps  too  violent,  and  his 
prudence  not  always  circumspect,  was  summoned  to  appear 
before  the  Council  of  Constance.  Secured,  as  he  thought 
from  the  rage  of  his  enemies  by  the  safe-conduct  granted 
him  by  the  Emperor  Sigismund  for  his  journey  to  Con- 
stance, his  residence  in  that  place,  and  his  return  to  hia 
own  country,  John  Huss  obeyed  the  order  of  the  Council, 
and  appeared  before  it  to  demonstrate  his  innocence,  and 
to  prove  that  the  charge  of  his  having  deserted  the  Church 
of  Rome  was  entirely  groundless.  However,  his  enemiea 
so  far  prevailed,  that  by  the  most  scandalous  breach  of 
public  faith,  he  was  cast  into  prison,  declared  a  heretic. 


262  HUSSITES. 

because  he  refused  to  plead  guilty  against  the  dictates  of 
his  conscience,  in  obedience  to  the  Council,  and  burnt  alive 
in  1415;  a  punishment  which  he  endured  with  unparalleled 
magnanimity  and  resolution.  When  he  came  to  the  place 
of  execution,  he  fell  on  his  knees,  sang  portions  of  psalms, 
looked  steadfastly  towards  heaven,  and  repeated  these 
words  :  "  Into  Thy  hands,  0  Lord,  do  I  commit  my  spirit ; 
Thou  hast  redeemed  me,  0  most  good  and  faithful  God. 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  assist  and  help  me,  that  with  a  firm  and 
present  mmd,  by  Thy  most  powerful  grace  I  may  undergo 
this  most  cruel  and  ignominious  death,  to  which  I  am  con- 
demned for  preaching  the  truth  of  Thy  most  holy  gospel." 
When  tho  chain  was  put  upon  him  at  the  stake,  he  said, 
with  a  smiling  countenance,  "  My  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was 
bound  with  a  harder  chain  than  this  for  my  sake,  and  why 
should  1  be  ashamed  of  this  old  rusty  one  ?"  When  the 
fagots  were  piled  up  to  his  very  neck,  the  Duke  of  Bava- 
ria was  officious  enough  to  desire  him  to  abjure.  "No," 
says  Huss,  "I  never  preached  any  doctrine  of  an  evil  ten- 
dency ;  and  what  I  taught  with  my  lips  I  seal  with  my 
blood."  He  said  to  the  executioner,  "Are  you  going  to 
burn  a  goose  ?  In  one  century  you  will  have  a  swan  you 
can  neither  roast  nor  boil."  If  he  were  prophetic,  he  must 
have  meant  Luther,  who  had  a  swan  for  his  arms.  The 
fire  was  then  applied  to  the  fagots ;  when  the  martyr  sang 
a  hymn,  with  so  loud  and  cheerful  a  voice,  that  he  was 
heard  through  all  the  cracklings  of  the  combustibles  and 
the  noise  of  the  multitude.  At  last  his  voice  was  cut  short, 
after  he  had  uttered,  "  Jesus  Christ,  thou  Son  of  the  living 
God,  have  mercy  upon  me,"  and  he  was  consumed  in  a 
moat  miserable  manner.  The  Duke  of  Bavaria  ordered 
the  executioner  to  throw  all  the  martyr's  clothes  into  the 
flames ;  after  which  his  ashes  were  carefully  collected,  and 
cast  into  the  Rhiue. 


HUTCHINSONIANS.  2G3 

But  the  cause  in  which  this  eminent  man  was  engaged 
did  not  die  with  him.  11  is  disciples  adhered  to  their 
master's  doctrines  after  his  death,  which  broke  out  into  an 
open  war.  John  Ziska,  a  Bohemian  knight,  in  1420,  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  Hussites,  who  were  now  become 
a  very  considerable  party,  and  threw  off  the  despotic  yoke 
of  SigismunJ,  who  had  treated  their  brethren  in  the  most 
barbarous  manner.  Ziska  was  succeded  by  Procopius,  in 
the  year  1424.  Acts  of  barbarity  were  committed  on  both 
sides ;  for,  notwithstanding  the  irreconcilable  opposition 
between  the  religious  sentiments  of  the  contending  parties, 
they  both  agreed  in  this  one  horrible  principle,  that  it  was 
innocent  and  lawful  to  persecute  and  extirpate  with  tire 
and  sword  the  enemies  of  the  true  religion  ;  and  such  they 
reciprocally  appeared  to  each  other.  These  commotions 
in  a  great  measure  subsided  by  the  interference  of  the 
Council  of  Basil,  in  the  year  1433. 

The  Hussites,  who  were  divided  into  two  parties,  viz. 
the  Calixtmes  and  the  Taborites,  spread  over  all  Bohemia 
and  Hungary,  and  even  Silesia  and  Poland;  and  there  are, 
it  is  said,  some  remains  of  them  still  subsisting  in  those 
parts. 


HUTCHINSONIANS. 

HUTCHINSONIANS,  the  followers  of  John  Hutchiuson, 
who  was  born  in  Yorkshire,  in  1674.  In  the  early  part 
of  his  life  he  served  the  Duke  of  Somerset  in  the  capacity 
of  steward ;  and  in  the  course  of  his  travels  from  place  to 
place,  employed  himself  in  collecting  fossils.  We  are  told 
that  the  large  and  noble  collection  bequeathed  by  Dr. 
Woodward  to  the  University  of  Cambridge  was  actually 


2''»4  HUTCHINSONIANS. 

made  by  him,  and  even  unfairly  obtained  from  him.  Tn 
1724,  he  published  the  first  part  of  his  curious  book,  called 
Moses'  Principia,  in  which  he  ridiculed  Dr.  Woodward's 
Natural  History  of  the  Earth,  and  exploded  the  doctrine 
of  gravitation  established  in  Newton's  Principia.  In  1727, 
he  published  a  second  part  of  Moses'  Principia,  containing 
the  principles  of  the  Scripture  philosophy.  From  this 
time  to  his  death,  he  published  a  volume  every  year  or 
two,  wnich,  with  the  manuscripts  he  left  behind,  were 
published  in  1748,  in  12  volumes,  8vo.  On  the  Monday 
before  his  death,  Dr.  Mead  urged  him  to  be  bled  ;  saying, 
pleasantly,  "  I  will  soon  send  you  to  Moses,'*  meaning  his 
studies  ;  but  Mr.  Hutchinson,  taking  it  in  the  literal  sense, 
answered,  in  a  muttering  tone,  "  I  believe,  doctor,  you 
will ;"  and  was  so  displeased,  that  he  dismissed  him  for 
another  physician ;  but  he  died  in  a  few  days  after, 
August  28,  1737.  - 

It  appears  to  be  a  leading  sentiment  of  this  denomina- 
tion, that  all  our  ideas  of  divinity  are  formed  from  the 
ideas  in  nature,  —  that  nature  is  a  standing  picture,  and 
Scripture  an  application  of  the  several  parts  of  the  picture, 
to  draw  out  to,  as  the  great  things  of  God,  in  order  to 
reform  our  mental  conceptions.  To  prove  this  point,  they 
allege  that  the  Scriptures  declare  the  invisible  things  of 
G-od  from  the  formation  of  the  world  are  clearly  seen, 
being  understood  by  the  things  which  are  made;  even  his 
eternal  power  and  Godhead,  (Rom.  i.  20).  The  heaven* 
must  declare  Grod's  righteousness  and  truth  in  the  congre* 
gation  of  the  saints,  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  5.)  And,  in  short,  the 
whole  system  of  nature,  in  one  voice  of  analogy,  declares 
and  gives  us  ideas  of  his  glory,  and  shows  us  his  handiwork. 
We  cannot  have  any  ideas  of  invisible  things  till  they  are 
pointed  out  to  us  by  revelation ;  and  as  we  cannot  know 
them  immediately,  such  as  they  are  in  themselves,  after 


HUTCHTNSONIANS.  265 

the  manner  in  \vhich  we  know  sensible  objects,  they  must 
be  communicated  to  us  by  the  mediation  of  such  things  as 
we  already  comprehend.  For  this  reason  the  Scripture  is 
found  to  have  a  language  of  its  own,  which  does  not  con- 
sist of  words,  but  of  signs  or  figures  taken  from  visible 
things ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  world  we  now  sea 
becomes  a  sort  of  commentary  on  the  mind  of  God,  and 
explains  the  world  in  which  we  believe.  The  doctrines 
of  the  Christian  faith  are  attested  by  the  whole  natural 
world  ;  they  are  recorded  in  a  language  which  has  never 
been  confounded ;  they  are  written  in  a  text  which  shall 
never  be  corrupted. 

The  Hutchinsonians  maintain  that  the  great  mystery 
of  the  Trinity  is  conveyed  to  our  understanding  by  ideas 
of  sense ;  and  that  the  created  substance  of  the  air,  or 
heaven,  in  its  threefold  agency  of  fire,  light,  and  spirit,  is 
the  enigma  of  the  one  essence  or  one  Jehovah  in  three 
persons.  The  unity  of  essence  is  exhibited  by  its  unity  of 
substance  ;  the  trinity,  of  conditions,  fire,  light,  and  spirit. 
Thus  the  one  substance  of  the  air,  or  heaven,  in  its  three 
conditions,  shows  the  unity  in  trinity ;  and  its  three  con- 
ditions in  or  of  one  substance,  the  trinity  in  unity.  For 
(says  this  denomination)  if  we  consult  the  writings  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  we  shall  find  the  persons  of  the 
Deity  represented  under  the  names  and  characters  of  the 
three  material  agents,  fire,  light,  and  spirit,  and  their 
actions  expressed  by  the  actions  of  these  their  emblems. 
The  Father  is  called  a  consuming  fire ;  and  his  judicial 
proceedings  are  spoken  of  in  words  which  denote  the 
several  actions  of  fire.  Jehovah  is  a  consuming  fire  ;  our 
God  is  a  consuming  fire,  (Deut.  iv.  24 ;  Heb.  xii.  29). 
The  Son  has  the  name  of  light,  and  his  purifying  actions 
and  offices  are  described  by  words  which  denote  the  actions 
and  offices  of  light.  He  is  the  true  light,  which  lighteth 

23 


266  HUTCHINSONIANS. 

every  man  that  comeih  into  the  world.  (John  i.  9 ;  Mai.  iv.  2). 
The  Comforter  has  the  name  of  Spirit ;  and  his  animating 
and  sustaining  offices  are  described  by  words,  for  the 
actions  and  offices  of  the  material  spirit.  His  actions  in 
the  spiritual  economy  are  agreeable  to  his  type  in  the 
natural  economy;  such  as  inspiring,  impelling,  driving, 
leading,  (Matt.  ii.  1).  The  philosophic  system  of  the 
Hutchinsonians  is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 
The  truth  of  it  rests  on  these  suppositions  :  1.  That  the 
Hebrew  language  was  formed  under  Divine  inspiration, 
either  all  at  once,  or  at  different  times,  as  occasion  re- 
quired ;  and  that  the  Divine  Being  had  a  view  in  construct- 
ing it,  to  the  various  revelations  which  he  in  all  succeeding 
times  should  make  in  that  language ;  consequently,  that  its 
words  must  be  the  most  proper  and  determinate  to  convey 
Buch  truths  as  the  Deity,  during  the  Old  Testament  dis- 
pensation, thought  fit  to  make  known  to  the  sons  of  men. 
Further  than  this,  that  the  inspired  penmen  of  those  ages 
at  least  were  under  the  guidance  of  heaven  in  the  choice 
of  words  for  recording  what  was  revealed  to  them  :  there- 
fore, that  the  Old  Testament,  if  the  language  be  rightly 
understood,  is  the  most  determinate  in  its  meaning  of  any 
other  book  under  heaven.  2.  That  whatever  is  recorded 
in  the  Old  Testament  is  strictly  and  literally  true,  allowing 
only  for  a  few  common  figures  of  rhetoric ;  that  nothing 
contrary  to  truth  is  accommodated  to  vulgar  apprehensions. 
In  proof  of  this,  the  Hutchinponians  argue  in  this  manner. 
The  primary  and  ultimate  design  of  revelation  is  indeed 
to  teach  men  divinity ;  but  in  subserviency  to  that,  geo- 
graphy, history,  and  chronology,  are  occasionally  intro- 
duced ;  all  which  are  allowed  to  be  just  and  authentic. 
There  are  also  innumerable  references  to  things  of  nature, 
and  descriptions  of  them.  If,  then,  the  former  are  just, 
and  to  be  depended  on,  for  the  same  reason  the  latter 


HUTCHINSONIANS.  267 

ought  to  be  esteemed  philosophically  true.  Further,  they 
think  it  not  unworthy  of  God,  that  he  should  make  it  a 
secondary  end  of  his  revelation  to  unfold  the  secrets  of  his 

» 

works ;  as  the  primary  was  to  make  known  the  mysteries 
of  his  nature,  and  the  designs  of  his  grace,  that  men  might 
thereby  be  led  to  admire  and  adore  the  wisdom  and  good- 
ness which  the  great  Author  of  the  universe  has  displayed 
throughout  all  his  works.  And  as  our  minds  are  often 
referred  to  natural  things  for  ideas  of  spiritual  truths,  it 
s  of  great  importance,  in  order  to  conceive  aright  of  divine 
matters,  that  our  ideas  of  the  natural  things  referred  to  be 
strictly  just  and  true. 

Mr.  Hutchinson  found  that  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  had 
some  capital  words,  which  he  thought  had  not  been  duly 
considered  and  understood  ;  and  which,  he  has  endeavored 
to  prove,  contain  in  their  radical  meaning  the  greatest  and 
most  comfortable  truths.  The  cherubim  he  explains  to  be 
a  hieroglyphic  of  Divine  construction,  or  a  sacred  image, 
to  describe,  as  far  as  figures  could  go,  the  humanity  united 
to  Deity ;  and  so  he  treats  of  several  other  words  of  similar 
import.  From  all  which  he  concluded,  that  the  rites  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Jewish  dispensation  were  so  many  de- 
lineations of  Christ,  in  what  he  was  to  be,  to  do,  and  to 
suffer ;  that  the  early  Jews  knew  them  to  be  types  of  his 
actions  and  sufferings  ;  and,  by  performing  them  as  such, 
were  so  far  Christians  both  in  faith  and  practice. 

The  Hutchinsonians^have,  for  the  most  part,  been  men 
of  devout  minds,  zealous  in  the  cause  of  Christianity,  and 
untainted  with  heterodox  opinions,  which  have  so  often 
divided  the  church  of  Christ.  The  names  of  Romaine, 
Bishop  Home,  Parkhurst,  and  others  of  this  denomination, 
will  be  long  esteemed,  both  for  the  piety  they  possessed, 
and  the  good  they  have  been  the  instruments  of  promoting 
amongst  mankind. 


ICONOCLASTES. 


ICONOCLASTES. 

ICOIOCLASTES,  or  Iconoclastse,  breakers  of  images  — » 
name  which  the  Church  of  Rome  gives  to  all  who  reject 
the  use  of  images  in  religious  matters.  The  word  is  Greek, 
formed  from  sixwv,  image,  and  xXaffTeiv,  rumpere,  "to 
break."  In  this  sense  not  only  the  reformed,  but  some  of 
the  eastern  churches,  are  called  iconoclastes,  and  esteemed 
by  them  heretics,  as  opposing  the  worship  of  the  images 
of  God  and  the  saints,  and  breaking  their  figures  and 
representations  in  churches. 

The  opposition  to  images  began  in  Greece,  under  the 
reign  of  Bardanes,  who  was  created  emperor  of  the  Greeka 
a  little  after  the  commencement  of  the  eighth  century, 
when  the  worship  of  them  became  common.  But  the  tu- 
mults occasioned  by  it  were  quelled  by  a  revolution,  which, 
in  713,  deprived  Bardanes  of  the  imperial  throne.  The 
dispute,  however,  broke  out  with  redoubled  fury  under  Leo 
the  Isaurian,  who  issued  an  edict  in  the  year  726,  abro 
gating,  as  some  say,  the  worship  of  images;  and  ordering 
all  the  images,  except  that  of  Christ's  crucifixion,  to  be 
removed  out  of  the  churches ;  but,  according  to  others 
this  edict  only  prohibited  the  paying  to  them  any  kind  of 
adoration  or  worship.  This  edict  occasioned  a  civil  war, 
which  broke  out  in  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and,  by 
the  suggestions  of  the  priests  and  monks,  ravaged  a  part 
of  Asia,  and  afterwards  reached  Italy.  The  civil  commo- 
tions and  insurrections  in  Italy  were  chiefly  promoted  by 
the  Roman  pontiffs,  Gregory  I.  and  II.  Leo  was  excom- 
municated ;  and  his  subjects  in  the  Italian  provinces  vio- 
lated their  allegiance,  and  rising  in  arms,  either  massacred 


1CONOCLASTES.  269 

rr  bashed  all  the  emperor's  deputies  and  officers.  In 
consequence  of  these  proceedings,  Leo  assembled  a  council 
at  Constantinople  in  730,  which  degraded  Germanus, 
bishop  of  that  city,  who  was  a  patron  of  images ;  and  he 
ordered  all  the  images  to  be  publicly  burnt,  and  inflicted  a 
variety  of  punishments  upon  such  as  were  attached  to  that 
idolatrous  worship.  Hence  arose  two  factions,  one  of 
which  adopted  the  adoration  and  worship  of  images,  and 
on  that  account  was  called  iconoduli  or  iconolatrae ;  and 
the  other  maintained  that  such  worship  was  unlawful,  and 
that  nothing  was  more  worthy  the  zeal  of  Christians  than 
to  demolish  and  destroy  those  statues  and  pictures  which 
were  the  occasion  of  this  gross  idolatry ;  and  hence  they 
were  distinguished  by  the  titles  of  iconomachi  (from  eixwv, 
image,  and  jxaxs  I  contend],  and  iconoclastse.  The  zeal 
of  Gregory  II.  in  favor  of  image  worship  was  not  only 
imitated,  but  even  surpassed,  by  his  successor,  Gregory 
III. ;  in  consequence  of  which  the  Italian  provinces  were 
torn  from  the  Grecian  empire.  Constantine,  called  Co- 
pronymus,  in  764  convened  a  council  at  Constantinople, 
regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  the  seventh  oecumenical  coun- 
cil, which  solemnly  condemned  the  worship  and  usage  of 
images.  Those  who,  notwithstanding  the  decree  of  the 
council,  raised  commotions  in  the  state,  were  severely  pun- 
ished, and  new  laws  were  enacted  to  set  bounds  to  the  vio- 
lence of  monastic  rage.  Leo  IV.,  who  was  declared  em- 
peror in  755,  pursued  the  same  measures,  and  had  recourse 
to  the  coercive  influence  of  penal  laws,  in  order  to  extir- 
pate idolatry  out  of  the  Christian  Church.  Irene,  the 
wife  of  Leo,  poisoned  her  husband  in  780 ;  assumed  the 
reins  of  the  empire  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Con- 
stantine ;  and  in  786  summoned  a  council  at  Nice,  in  Bi- 
thynia,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Second  Nicene  Council, 
which  abrogated  the  laws  and  decrees  against  the  new  idol- 

23* 


270  1CONOCLASTES. 

atry,  restored  the  worship  of  images  and  of  the  cross,  and 
denounced  severe  punishments  against  those  who  main- 
tained that  God  was  the  only  object  of  religious  adoration. 
In  this  contest  the  Britons,  Germans,  and  Gauls  were  of 
opinion  that  images  might  be  lawfully  continued  in 
churches ;  but  they  considered  the  worship  of  them  as 
highly  injurious,  and  offensive  to  the  Supreme  Being. 
Charlemagne  distinguished  himself  as  a  mediator  in  this 
controversy ;  he  ordered  four  books  concerning  images  to 
be  composed,  refuting  the  reasons  urged  by  the  Nicene 
bishops  to  justify  the  worship  of  images,  which  he  sent  to 
Adrian,  the  Roman  pontiff,  in  790,  in  order  to  engage  him 
to  withdraw  his  approbation  of  the  decrees  of  the  last 
Council  of  Nice.  Adrian  wrote  an  answer  ;  and  in  794,  a 
council  of  300  bishops,  assembled  by  Charlemagne  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Maine,  confirmed  the  opinion  contained 
in  the  four  books,  and  solemnly  condemned  the  worship  of 
images. 

In  the  Greek  Church,  after  the  banishment  of  Irene, 
the  controversy  concerning  images  broke'  out  anew,  and 
was  carried  on  by  the  contending  parties,  during  the  half 
of  the  ninth  century,  with  various  and  uncertain  success. 
The  Emperor  Nicephorus  appears,  upon  the  whole,  to  have 
been  an  enemy  to  this  idolatrous  worship.  His  successor, 
Michael  Curopalates,  surnamed  Rhangabe,  patronized  and 
encouraged  it.  But  the  scene  changed  on  the  accession  of 
Leo,  the  Armenian,  to  the  empire,  who  assembled  a  council 
at  Constantinople,  in  812,  that  abolished  the  decrees  of 
the  Nicene  Council.  His  successor  Michael,  surnamed 
Balbus,  disapproved  of  the  worship  of  images,  and  his  son 
Theophilus  treated  them  with  great  severity.  However, 
the  Empress  Theodora,  after  his  death,  and  during  the 
minority  of  her  son,  assembled  a  council  at  Constantinople 
in  842,  which  reinstated  the  decrees  of  the  Second  Nicene 


1CONOCL  ASTE8.  271 

Council,  and  encouraged  image  worship  by  a  law.  The 
council  held  at  the  same  place  under  Protius,  in  879,  and 
reckoned  by  the  Greeks  the  eighth  general  council,  con- 
firmed and  renewed  the  Nicene  decrees.  In  commemora- 
tion of  this  council,  a  festival  was  instituted  by  the  super- 
stitious Greeks,  called  the  Feast  of  Orthodoxy.  The 
Latins  were  generally  of  opinion  that  images  might  be 
suffered,  as  the  means  of  aiding  the  memory  of  the  faith- 
ful, and  of  calling  to  their  remembrance  the  pious  exploits 
and  virtuous  actions  of  the  persons  whom  they  represented ; 
but  they  detested  all  thoughts  of  paying  them  the  least 
marks  of  religious  homage  or  adoration.  The  Council  of 
Paris,  assembled  in  824  by  Louis  the  Meek,  resolved  to 
allow  the  use  of  images  in  the  churches,  but  severely  pro- 
hibited rendering  them  religious  worship ;  nevertheless, 
towards  the  conclusion  of  this  century,  the  Galilean  clergy 
began  to  pay  a  kind  of  religious  homage  to  the  images  of 
saints,  and  their  example  was  followed  by  the  Germans 
and  other  nations.  However,  the  Iconoclastes  still  had 
their  adherents  among  the  Latins ;  the  most  eminent  of 
whom  was  Claudius,  Bishop  of  Turin,  who,  in  823,  ordered 
all  images,  and  even  the  cross,  to  be  cast  out  of  the 
churches,  and  committed  to  the  flames;  and  he  wrote  a 
treatise,  in  which  he  declared  both  against  the  use  and 
worship  of  them.  He  condemned  relics,  pilgrimages  to  the 
Holy  Land,  and  all  voyages  to  the  tombs  of  saints ;  and 
to  his  writings  and  labors  it  was  owing  that  the  city  of 
Turin,  and  the  adjacent  country,  was  for  a  long  time  after 
his  death  much  less  infected  with  superstition  than  the 
other  parts  of  Europe.  The  controversy  concerning  the 
sanctity  of  images  was  again  revived  by  Leo,  Bishop  of 
Chalcedon,  in  the  llth  century,  on  occasion  of  the  Empe- 
ror Alexius's  converting  the  figures  of  silver  that  adorned 
the  portals  of  the  churches  into  money,  in  order  to  supply 


272  WiCKLIFFITBS. 

the  exigencies  of  the  state.  The  bishop  obstinately  main- 
tained that  he  had  been  guilty  of  sacrilege,  and  published 
a  treatise,  in  which  he  affirmed  that  in  these  images  there 
resided  an  inherent  sanctity,  and  that  the  adoration  of 
Christians  ought  not  to  be  confined  to  the  persons  repre- 
sented by  these  images,  but  extend  to  the  images  them- 
selves. The  emperor  assembled  a  council  at  Constantino- 
ple, which  determined  that  the  images  of  Christ  and  of 
the  saints  were  to  be  honored  only  with  a  relative  wor- 
ship ;  and  that  the  invocation  and  worship  were  to  be  ad- 
dressed to  the  saints  only,  as  the  servants  of  Christ,  and 
on  account  of  their  relation  to  him  as  their  master.  Leo, 
dissatisfied  with  these  absurd  and  superstitious  decisions, 
was  sent  into  banishment.  In  the  western  church,  the 
worship  of  images  was  disapproved,  and  opposed  by  seve- 
ral considerable  parties,  as  the  Petrobrussians,  Albigenses, 
Waldenses,  etc. ;  till  at  length  this  idolatrous  practice  was 
abolished  in  many  parts  of  the  Christian  world  by  the 
Reformation. 


WICKLIFFITES, 

1  HE  followers  of  the  famous  John  Wickliffe,  called  "  the 
first  reformer,"  who  was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  the  year 
1324.  He  attacked  the  jurisdiction  of  the  pope  and  the 
bishops.  He  was  for  this  summoned  to  a  council  at  Lam- 
beth, to  give  an  account  of  his  doctrines :  but  being  coun- 
tenanced by  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  was  both  times  dis- 
missed without  condemnation.  Wickliffe,  therefore,  con- 
tinued to  spread  his  new  principles  as  usual,  adding  to  them 
doctrines  still  more  alarming  ;  by  which  he  drew  after  him 


WILK1NSONIANS.  273 

a  great  number  af  disciples.  Upon  this,  William  Courtnay, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  called  another  council  in  1382, 
which  condemned  twenty-four  propositions  of  Wickliffe  and 
his  disciples,  and  obtained  a  declaration  of  Richard  II. 
against  all  who  should  preach  them ;  but  while  these  pro- 
ceedings were  agitating,  Wickliffe  died  at  Lutterworth, 
leaving  many  works  behind  him  for  thu  establishment  of  his 
doctrines.  He  was  buried  in  his  own  church  at  Lutter- 
worth, in  Leicestershire,  where  his  bones  were  suffered  to 
rest  in  peace  till  the  year  1428,  when  by  an  order  from  the 
pope,  they  were  taken  up  and  burnt.  Wickliffe  was  doubt- 
less a  very  extraordinary  man,  considering  the  times  ir 
which  he  lived.  He  discovered  the  absurdities  and  impc 
sitions  of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  had  the  honesty  and  re- 
solution to  promulgate  his  opinions,  which  a  little  more 
support  would  probably  have  enabled  him  to  establish ; 
they  were  evidently  the  foundation  of  the  subsequent 
Reformation. 

\ 


WILKINSONIANS, 

THE  followers  of  Jemima  Wilkinson,  who  was  born  in  Cum- 
berland, R.  I.  In  October,  1776,  she  asserted  that  she  was 
taken  sick,  and  actually  died,  and  that  her  soul  went  to  hea- 
ven, where  it  still  continues.  Soon  after  her  body  was  re- 
animated with  the  spirit  and  power  of  Christ,  upon  which  she 
set  up  as  a  public  teacher ;  and  declared  she  had  an  imme- 
diate revelation  for  all  she  delivered,  and  was  arrived  to  a 
state  of  absolute  perfection.  It  is  also  said  she  pretended 
to  foretell  future  events,  to  discern  the  secrets  of  the  heart, 
and  to  have  the  power  of  healing  diseases ;  and  if  any  per- 


274  WALDENSES. 

son  who  had  made  application  to  her  was  not  healed,  she 
attributed  it  to  his  want  of  faith.  She  asserted  that  those 
who  refused  to  believe  these  exalted  things  concerning  her, 
will  be  in  the  state  of  the  unbelieving  Jews,  who  rejected 
the  counsel  of  God  against  themselves ;  and  she  told  her 
hearers  that  was  the  eleventh  hour,  and  the  last  call  of 
mercy  that  ever  should  be  granted  them :  for  she  heard  an 
inquiry  in  heaven,  saying,  "  Who  will  go  and  preach  to  a 
dying  world  ?"  or  words  to  that  import ;  and  she  said  she 
answered,  "  Here  am  I — send  me  ;"  and  that  she  left  the 
realms  of  light  and  glory,  and  the  company  of  the  heavenly 
host,  who  are  continually  praising  and  worshipping  God, 
in  order  to  descend  upon  earth,  and  pass  through  many 
sufferings  and  trials  for  the  happiness  of  mankind.  She 
assumed  the  title  of  the  universal  friend  of  mankind  ;  hence 
her  followers  distinguish  themselves  by  the  name  of  Friends 


WALDENSES, 

OR  Valdenses,  a  sect  of  reformers,  who  made  their  first 
appearance  about  the  year  1160.  They  were  most  nume- 
rous about  the  valleys  of  Piedmont ;  and  hence,  some  say, 
they  were  called  Valdenses,  or  Vaudois,  and  not  from  Peter 
Valdo,  as  others  suppose.  Mosheim,  however,  gives  this 
account  of  them  :  he  says,  that  Peter,  an  opulent  mercKr^t 
of  Lyons,  surnamed  Valdensis,  or  Valid  iaiu  ft,  from  Vaux, 
or  Waldum,  a  town  in  the  marquisate  of  Lyons,  being  ex- 
tremely zealous  for  the  advancement  of  true  piety  and 
Christian  knowledge,  employed  a  certain  priest,  called 
Stephanus  de  Evisa,  about  the  year  1160,  in  translating, 
from  Latin  into  French,  the  four  Gospels,  with  other  hooka 


WALDENSES.  275 

of  holy  Scripture,  and  the  most  remarkable  sentences  of 
the  ancient  doctors,  which  were  so  highly  esteemed  in  thia 
century.  But  no  sooner  had  he  perused  these  sacred  books 
with  a  proper  degree  of  attention,  than  he  perceived  that 
the  religion  which  was  now  taught  in  the  Roman  church 
differed  totally  from  that  which  was  originally  inculcated 
*by  Christ  and  his  apostles.  Struck  with  this  glaring  con- 
tradiction between  the  doctrines  of  the  pontiffs  and  the 
truths  of  the  Gospel,  and  animated  with  zeal,  he  abandoned 
his  mercantile  vocation,  distributed  his  riches  among  the 
poor  (whence  the  Waldenses  were  called  poor  men  of  Lyons], 
and,  forming  an  association  with  other  pious  men,  who  had 
adopted  his  sentiments  and  his  turn  of  devotion,  he  began, 
in  the  year  1180,  to  assume  the  quality  of  a  public  teacher, 
and  to  instruct  the  multitude  in  the  doctrines  and  precepta 
of  Christianity. 

Soon  after  Peter  had  assumed  the  exercise  of  his  min- 
istry, the  archbishop  of  Lyons,  and  the  other  rulers  of  the 
church  in  that  province,  vigorously  opposed  him.  How- 
ever, their  opposition  was  unsuccessful ;  for  the  purity  and 
simplicity  of  that  religion  which  these  good  men  taught, 
the  spotless  innocence  that  shone  forth  in  their  lives  and 
actions,  and  the  noble  contempt  of  riches  and  honors  which 
was  conspicuous  in  the  whole  of  their  conduct  and  conver- 
sation, appeared  so  engaging  to  all  such  as  had  any  sense 
of  true  piety,  that  the  number  of  their  followers  daily  in- 
creased. They  accordingly  formed  religious  assemblies, 
first  in  France,  and  afterwards  in  Lombardy ;  from  whence 
they  propagated  their  sect  throughout  the  other  provinces 
of  Europe  with  incredible  rapidity,  and  with  such  invinci- 
ble fortitude,  that  neither  fire  nor  sword,  nor  the  most 
cruel  inventions  of  merciless  persecution,  could  damp  their 
l,  or  entirely  ruin  their  cause. 
The  attempts  of  Peter  Waldus  and  his  followers  were 


27(5  WALDENSES. 

neither  empk/ed  nor  designed  to  introduce  new  doctrine? 
into  the  church,  nor  to  propose  new  articles  of  faith  to 
Christians  All  they  aimed  at  was,  to  reduce  the  form 
of  ecclesiastical  government,  and  the  manners  both  of  the 
clergy  and  people,  to  that  amiable  simplicity  and  primitive 
sanctity  that  characterized  the  apostolic  ages,  and  which 
appear  so  strongly  recommended  in  the  precepts  and  in-" 
junctions  of  the  Divine  Author  of  our  holy  religion.  In 
consequence  of  this  design,  they  complained  that  the  Roman 
church  had  degenerated,  under  Constantine  the  Great,  from 
its  primitive  purity  and  sanctity.  They  denied  the  supre- 
macy of  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  maintained  that  the  rulers 
and  ministers  of  the  church  were  obliged,  by  their  vocation, 
to  imitate  the  poverty  of  the  apostles,  and  to  procure  for 
themselves  a  subsistence  by  the  work  of  their  hands.  They 
considered  every  Christian  as,  in  a  certain  measure,  quali- 
fied and  authorized  to  instruct,  exhort,  and  confirm  the 
brethren  in  their  Christian  course ;  and  demanded  the  res- 
toration of  the  ancient  penitential  discipline  of  the  church, 
t.  e.,  the  expiation  of  transgressions  by  prayer,  fasting,  and 
alms,  which  the  newly-invented  doctrine  of  indulgences  had 
almost  totally  abolished.  They  at  the  same  time  affirmed 
that  every  pious  Christian  was  qualified  and  entitled  to 
prescribe  to  the  penitent  the  kind  or  degree  of  satisfaction 
or  expiation  that  their  transgressions  required ;  that  con- 
fession made  to  priests  was  by  no  means  necessary,  since 
the  humble  offender  might  acknowledge  his  sins  and  testify 
his  repentance  to  any  true  believer,  and  might  expect  from 
such  the  counsel  and  admonition  which  his  case  demanded. 
They  maintained  that  the  power  of  delivering  sinners  from 
the  guilt  and  punishment  of  their  offences  belonged  to  God 
alone ;  and  that  indulgences,  of  consequence,  were  the 
criminal  inventions  of  sordid  avarice.  They  looked  upon 
the  prayers  and  other  ceremonies  that  were  instituted  in 


WALDENSES.  277 

behalf  of  the  dead,  as  vain,  useless,  and  absurd,  and  denied 
the  existence  of  departed  souls  in  an  intermediate  state  of 
purification ;  affirming  that  they  were  immediately,  upon 
their  separation  from  the  body,  received  into  heaven,  or 
thrust  down  to  hell.  These  and  other  tenets  of  a  like  na- 
ture, composed  the  system  of  doctrine  propagated  by  the 
Waldenses.  It  is  evident  that  the  ancient  Waldenses 
denied  the  obligation  of  infant  baptism,  and  that  others 
rejected  water  baptism  entirely ;  but  Wall  has  labored  to 
prove  that  infant  baptism  was  generally  practised  among 
them. 

Their  rules  of  practice  were  extremely  austere  ;  for  they 
adopted  as  the  model  of  their  moral  discipline  the  sermon 
of  Christ  on  the  mount,  which  they  interpreted  and  ex- 
plained in  the  most  rigorous  and  literal  manner ;  and  con- 
sequently prohibited  and  condemned  in  their  society  all 
wars,  and  suits  of  law,  and  all  attempts  towards  the  acqui- 
sition of  wealth ;  the  inflicting  of  capital  punishments,  self- 
defence  against  unjust  violence,  and  oaths  of  all  kinds. 

During  the  greatest  part  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
those  of  them  who  lived  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  and 
who  had  embraced  the  doctrine,  discipline,  and  worship  of 
the  church  of  Geneva,  were  oppressed  and  persecuted  in 
the  most  barbarous  and  inhuman  manner  by  the  ministers 
of  Rome.  This  persecution  was  carried  on  with  peculiar 
marks  of  rage  and  enormity  in  the  years  1655,  1656,  and 
1696,  and  seemed  to  portend  nothing  less  than  the  total 
extinction  of  that  unhappy  nation.  The  most  horrid  scenes 
of  violence  and  bloodshed  were  exhibited  in  this  theatre 
of  papal  tyranny ;  and  the  few  Waldenses  thg  t  survived 
were  indebted  for  their  existence  and  support  to  the  inter- 
cession made  for  them  by  the  English  and  Dutch  govern- 
ments, and  also  by  the  Swiss  cantons,  who  solicited  the 
clemency  of  the  duke  of  Savoy  on  their  behalf. 

24 


278  GREEK    CIITTIICH. 


GREEK  CHURCH. 

THE  Greek  Church  comprehends  in  its  bosom  a  con- 
siderable part  of  Greece,  the  Grecian  Isles,  Wallaehia, 
Moldavia,  Egypt,  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  Libya,  Arabia,  Meso- 
potamia, Syria,  Cilicia,  and  Palestine,  which  are  all  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Alex- 
andria, Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  If  to  these  we  add  the 
whole  of  the  Russian  empire  ii  Europe,  great  part  of 
Siberia  in  Asia,  Astracan,  Casan,  and  Georgia,  it  will  be 
evident  that  the  Greek  church  has  a  wider  extent  of  terri- 
tory than  the  Latin,  with  all  the  branches  which  have 
sprung  from  it ;  and  that  it  is  with  great  impropriety  that 
the  church  of  Rome  is  called  by  her  members  the  catholic' 
or  universal  church.  That  in  these  widely  distant  coun- 
tries the  professors  of  Christianity  are  agreed  in  every 
minute  article  of  belief,  it  would  be  rash  to  assert ;  but 
there  is  certainly  such  an  agreement  among  them,  with 
respect  both  to  faith  and  to  discipline,  that  they  mutually 
hold  communion  with  each  other,  and  are,  in  fact,  but  one 
church.  It  is  called  the  Greek  church,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  Latin  or  Roman  church ;  as  also  the  Eastern,  in 
distinction  from  the  Western  church.  We  shall  here  pre- 
sent the  reader  with  a  view  of  its  rise,  tenets,  and  discipline. 

The  Greek  church  is  considered  as  a  separation  from 
the  Latin.  In  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  the  con- 
troversy relating  to  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
(which  had  been  started  in  the  sixth  century)  became  a 
point  of  great  importance,  on  account  of  the  jealowsy  and 
ambition  which  were  at  that  time  blended  with  it.  Photius, 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  being  advanced  to  that 
«ee  in  the  room  of  Ignatius,  whom  he  procured  to  be 


GREEK    CHURCH.  279 

deposed,  was  solemnly  excluded  by  pope  Nicholas,  in  a 
council  held  at  Rome,  and  his  ordination  declared  null  and 
void  The  Greek  emperor  resented  this  conduct  of  the 
pope,  who  defended  himself  with  great  spirit  and  resolu- 
tion. Photius,  in  his  turn,  convened  what  he  called  an 
oecumenical  council,  in  which  he  pronounced  sentence  of 
excommunication  and  deposition  against  the  pope,  and  got 
it  subscribed  by  twenty-one  bishops  and  others,  amounting 
in  number  to  a  thousand.  This  occasioned  a  wide  breach 
between  the  sees  of  Rome  and  Constantinople.  However, 
the  death  of  the  emper  >r  Michael,  and  the  deposition  of 
Photius,  subsequent  thereupon,  seemed  to  have  restored 
peace ;  for  the  emperor  Basil  held  a  council  at  Constanti- 
nople in  the  year  869,  in  which  entire  satisfaction  was 
given  to  pope  Adrian  ;  but  the  schism  was  only  smothered 
and  suppressed  a  while.  The  Greek  church  had  several 
complaints  against  the  Latin  ;  particularly  it  was  thought 
a  great  hardship  for  the  Greeks  to  subscribe  to  the  defini- 
tion of  a  council  according  to  the  Roman  form,  prescribed 
by  the  pope,  since  it  made  the  church  of  Constantinople 
dependent  on  that  of  Rome,  and  set  the  pope  above  an 
oecumenical  council ;  but,  above  all,  the  pride  and  haughti- 
ness of  the  Roman  court  gave  the  Greeks  a  great  distaste ; 
and  as  their  deportment  seemed  to  insult  his  imperial 
majesty,  it  entirely  alienated  the  affections  of  the  emperor 
Basil.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century, 
Michael  Cerularius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  opposed 
the  Latins  with  respect  to  their  making  use  of  unleavened 
bread  in  the  eucharist,  their  observation  of  the  Sabbath, 
and  fasting  on  Saturdays,  charging  them  with  living  in 
communion  with  the  Jews.  To  this,  pope  Leo  IX.  replied, 
and,  in  his  apology  for  the  Latins,  declaimed  very  warmly 
against  the  false  doctrine  of  the  Greeks,  interposing, 
at  the  same  time,  the  authority  of  his  &ee.  He  likewise, 


280  GREEK    CHURCH. 

by  his  legates,  excommunicated  the  patriarch  in  the  church 
of  Santa  Sophia,  which  gave  the  last  shock  to  the  recon- 
ciliation attempted  a  long  time  after,  hut  to  no  purpose ; 
for  from  that  time  the  hatred  of  the  Greeks  to  the  Latins, 
and  of  the  Latins  to  the  Greeks,  became  insuperable,  inso- 
much that  they  have  continued  ever  since  separated  from 
each  other's  communion. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  chief  tenets  held  by  the 
Greek  church :  —  They  disown  the  authority  of  the  pope, 
and  deny  that  the  church  of  Rome  is  the  true  catholic 
church.  They  do  not  baptize  their  children  till  they  are 
three,  four,  five,  six,  ten,  nay,  sometimes  eighteen  years 
of  age :  baptism  is  performed  by  trine  immersion.  They 
insist  that  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  ought  to 
be  administered  in  both  kinds,  and  they  give  the  sacrament 
to  children  immediately  after  baptism.  They  grant  no 
indulgences,  nor  do  they  lay  any  claim  to  the  character 
of  infallibility,  like  the  church  of  Borne.  They  deny  that 
there  is  any  such  place  as  purgatory ;  notwithstanding 
they  pray  for  the  dead,  that  God  would  have  mercy  on 
them  at  the  general  judgment.  They  practise  the  invo- 
cation of  saints ;  though,  they  say,  they  do  not  invoke 
them  as  deities,  but  as  intercessors  with  God.  They 
exclude  confirmation,  extreme  unction,  and  matrimony, 
out  of  the  seven  sacraments.  They  deny  auricular  con- 
fession to  be  a  Divine  precept,  and  say  it  is  only  a,  positive 
injunction  of  the  church.  They  pay  no  religious  homage 
to  the  eucharist.  They  administer  the  communion  in  both 
kinds  to  the  laity,  both  in  sickness  and  in  health,  though 
they  have  never  applied  themselves  to  their  confessors ; 
because  they  are  persuaded  that  a  lively  faith  is  all  which 
is  requisite  for  the  worthy  receiving  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
They  maintain  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  only  from 
the  Father,  and  not  from  the  Son.  They  believe  in  pro- 


GREEK    CHURCH.  281 

destination.  They  admit  of  no  images  in  relief  or  embossed 
work,  but  use  paintings  and  sculptures  in  copper  or  silver. 
They  approve  of  the  marriage  of  priests,  provided  they 
enter  into  that  state  before  their  admission  into  holy 
orders.  They  condemn  all  fourth  marriages.  They  ob- 
serve a  number  of  holy  days,  and  keep  four  fasts  in  tho 
year  more  solemn  than  the  rest,  of  which  the  fast  in  Lent, 
before  Easter,  is  the  chief.  They  believe  the  doctrine  of 
consubstantiation,  or  the  union  of  the  body  of  Christ  with 
the  sacramental  bread. 

Since  the  Greeks  became  subject  to  the  Turkish  yoke, 
they  have  sunk  into  the  most  deplorable  ignorance,  in 
consequence  of  the  slavery  and  thraldom  under  which 
they  groan ;  and  their  religion  is  now  greatly  corrupted 
[t  is,  indeed,  little  better  than  a  heap  of  ridiculous  cere- 
monies and  absurdities.  The  head  of  the  Greek  church  is 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  is  chosen  by  the 
neighboring  archbishops  and  metropolitans,  and  confirmed 
by  the  emperor  or  grand  vizier.  He  is  a  person  of  great 
dignity,  being  the  head  and  director  of  the  Eastern  church. 
The  other  patriarchs  are  those  of  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  and 
Alexandria.  Mr.  Tournefort  tells  us  that  the  patriarchates 
are  now  generally  set  to  sale  and  bestowed  upon  those 
who  are  the  highest  bidders.  The  patriarchs,  metropoli- 
tans, archbishops,  and  bishops,  are  always  chosen  from 
among  the  caloyers,  or  Greek  monks.  The  next  person 
to  a  bishop,  among  the  clergy,  is  an  archimandrite,  who  ia 
the  director  of  one  or  more  convents,  which  are  called 
mandren  ;  then  come  the  abbot,  the  arch-priest,  the  priest, 
the  deacon,  the  under-deacon,  the  chanter,  and  the  lec- 
turer. The  secular  clergy  are  subject  to  no  rules,  and 
never  rise  higher  than  high-priest.  The  Greeks  have  few 
nunneries,  but  a  great  many  convents  of  monks,  who  are 

24* 


282  MAHOMETAN  ISM. 

all  priests,  and  (students  excepted)  obliged  to  follow  some 
handicraft  employment,  and  lead  a  very  austere  life. 

The  Russians  adhere  to  the  doctrine  and  ceremonies  of 
the  Greek  church,  though  they  are  now  independent  of 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  The  Russian  church, 
indeed,  may  be  reckoned  the  first,  as  to  extent  of  empire ; 
yet  there  is  very  little  of  the  power  of  vital  religion  among 
them.  The  Moskolniki,  or,  as  they  now  call  themselves, 
the  Starovertzi,  were  a  sect  that  separated  from  the  church 
of  Russia  about  1666 ;  they  affected  extraordinary  piety 
and  devotion,  a  veneration  for  the  letter  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  and  would  not  allow  a  priest  to  administer 
baptism  who  had  that  day  tasted  brandy.  They  harbored 
many  follies  and  superstitions,  and  have  been  greatly 
persecuted  ;  but,  perhaps,  there  will  be  found  among  them 
"  some  that  shall  be  counted  to  the  Lord  for  a  generation." 
Several  settlements  of  German  Protestants  have  been 
established  on  the  Wolga.  The  Moravians  also  have  done 
good  in  Livonia,  and  the  adjacent  isles  in  the  Baltic  under 
the  Russian  government. 


MAHOMETANISM 

Is  the  system  of  religion  formed  and  propagated  by  Ma- 
homet, and  still  adhered  to  by  his  followers.  It  is  pro- 
fessed by  the  Turks  and  Persians,  by  several  nations 
among  the  Africans,  and  many  among  the  East  Indians. 

Mahomet  was  born  in  the  reign  of  Anushirwan  the  Just, 
emperor  of  Persia,  about  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  of 
the  Christian  era.  He  came  into  the  world  under  some 
disadvantages.  His  father  Abd'allah  was  a  younger  sou 
of  Abd'almotalleb ;  and  dying  very  young,  and  in  his 


MAHOMETANISM.  283 

father's  lifetime,  left  his  widow  and  infant  son  in  very 
mean  circumstances,  his  whole  subsistence  consisting  but 
of  five  camels  and  one  Ethiopian  she-slave.  Abd'almo- 
talleb  was  therefore  obliged  to  take  care  of  his  grandchild 
Mahomet ;  which  he  not  only  did  during  his  life,  but  at  his 
death  enjoined  his  eldest  son  Abu  Taleb,  who  was  brother 
to  Abd'allah  by  the  same  mother,  to  provide  for  him  for 
the  future ;  which  he  very  affectionately  did,  and  instructed 
him  in  the  business  of  a  merchant,  which  he  followed :  and 
to  that  end  he  took  him  into  Syria  when  he  was  but  thir- 
teen. He  afterwards  recommended  him  to  Khadijah,  a 
noble  and  rich  widow,  for  her  factor ;  in  whose  service  he 
behaved  himself  so  well,  that,  by  making  him  her  husband, 
she  soon  raised  him  to  an  equality  with  the  richest  in 
Mecca. 

After  he  began  by  this  advantageous  match  to  live  at 
his  ease,  it  was,  that  he  formed  the  scheme  of  establishing 
a  new  religion,  or,  as  he  expressed  it,  of  replanting  the 
only  true  and  ancient  one,  professed  by  Adam,  Noah, 
Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus,  and  all  the  prophets,  by  destroy- 
ing the  gross  idolatry  into  which  the  generality  of  his 
countrymen  had  fallen,  and  weeding  out  the  corruptions 
a,nd  superstitions  which  the  latter  Jews  and  Christians  had, 
as  he  thought,  introduced  into  their  religion,  and  reducing 
it  to  its  original  purity,  which  consisted  chiefly  in  the  wor- 
ship of  one  God. 

Before  he  made  any  attempt  abroad,  he  rightly  judged 
that  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  begin  with  the  conversion 
of  his  own  household.  Having  therefore  retired  with  his 
family,  as  he  had  done  several  times  before,  to  a  cave  in 
Mount  Hara,  he  there  opened  the  secret  of  his  mission  to 
his  wife  Khadijah ;  and  acquainted  her  that  the  angel 
Gabriel  had  just  before  appeared  to  him,  and  told  him  that 
he  was  appointed  the  apostle  of  God:  he  also  repeated  to 


284  MAHOMETANISM. 

her  a  passage  which  he  pretended  had  been  revealed  to 
him  by  the  ministry  of  the  angel,  with  those  other  circum- 
stances of  this  first  appearance  which  are  related  by  the 
Mahometan  writers.  Khadijah  received  the  news  with 
great  joy,  swearing  by  Him  in  whose  hands  her  soul  was, 
that  she  trusted  he  would  be  the  prophet  of  his  nation ; 
and  immediately  communicated  what  she  had  heard  to  her 
cousin  Warakah  Ebn  Nawfal,  who,  being  a  Christian, 
could  write  in  the  Hebrew  character,  and  was  tolerably 
well  versed  in  the  Scriptures ;  and  he  readily  came  into 
her  opinion,  assuring  her  that  the  same  angel  who  had 
formerly  appeared  unto  Moses,  was  now  sent  to  Mahomet. 
The  first  overture  the  prophet  made  was  in  the  month  of 
Ramadan,  in  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age,  which  is  there- 
fore usually  called  the  year  of  his  mission. 

Encouraged  by  so  good  a  beginning,  he  resolved  to  pro- 
ceed, and  try  for  some  time  what  he  could  do  by  private 
persuasion,  not  daring  to  hazard  the  whole  aifair  by  expo  • 
sing  it  too  suddenly  to  the  public.  He  soon  made  prose- 
lytes of  those  under  his  own  roof,  viz.  his  wife  Khadijah, 
his  servant  Zeid  Ebn  Haretha,  to  whom  he  gave  his  free- 
dom on  that  occasion  (which  afterwards  became  a  rule  to 
his  followers),  and  his  cousin  and  pupil  Ali,  the  son  of  Abu 
Taleb,  though  then  very  young ;  but  this  last,  making  no 
account  of  the  other  two,  used  to  style  himself  the  first  of 
believers.  The  next  person  Mahomet  applied  to  was 
Abd'allah  Ebn  Abi  Kohafa,  surnamed  Abu  Seer,  a  man 
of  great  authority  among  the  Koreish,  and  one  whose  inte- 
rest he  well  knew  would  be  of  great  service  to  him,  as  it 
soon  appeared ;  for  Abu  Beer  being  gained  over,  prevailed 
also  on  Othman  Ebn  Affan,  Abd'alraham  Ebn  Awf,  Saad 
Ebn  Abbi  Wakkus,  At  Zobeir  al  Awam,  and  Telha  Ebn 
Obeidalla,  all  principal  men  of  Mecca,  to  follow  his  exam- 
ple. These  men  were  six  chief  companions,  who,  with  a 


MAHOMETANISM.  285 

few  more,  were  converted  in  the  space  of  three  years ;  at 
the  end  of  which,  Mahomet  having,  as  he  hoped,  a  suffi- 
cient interest  to  support  him,  made  his  mission  no  longer 
a  secret,  but  gave  out  that  God  had  commanded  him  to 
admonish  his  near  relations ;  and  in  order  to  do  it  with 
more  convenience  and  prospect  of  success,  he  directed  All 
to  prepare  an  entertainment,  and  invited  the  sons  and  de- 
scendants of  Abd'almotalleb,  intending  then  to  open  his 
mind  to  them.  This  was  done,  and  about  forty  of  them 
came ;  but  Abu  Laheb,  one  of  his  uncles,  making  the  com- 
pany break  up  before  Mahomet  had  an  opportunity  of 
speaking,  obliged  him  to  give  them  a  second  invitation  the 
next  day ;  and  when  they  were  come,  he  made  them  the 
following  speech  :  "I  know  no  man  in  all  Arabia  who  can 
offer  his  kindred  a  more  excellent  thing  than  I  now  do  to 
you  :  I  offer  you  happiness,  both  in  this  life,  and  in  that 
which  is  to  come :  God  Almighty  hath  commanded  me  to 
call  you  unto  him.  Who,  therefore,  among  you,  will  be 
assistant  to  me  herein,  and  become  my  brother  and  my 
vicegerent?"  All  of  them  hesitating  and  declining  the 
matter,  AH  at  length  rose  up,  and  declared  that  he  would 
be  his  assistant,  and  vehemently  threatened  those  who 
should  oppose  him.  Mahomet  upon  this  embraced  Ali 
with  great  demonstrations  of  affection,  and  desired  all  who 
were  present  to  hearken  to  and  obey  him  as  his  deputy ;  at 
which  the  company  broke  out  into  a  great  laughter,  telling 
Abu  Taleb  that  he  must  now  pay  obedience  to  his  son. 

This  repulse,  however,  was  so  far  from  discouraging 
Mahomet,  that  he  began  to  preach  in  public  to  the  people, 
who  heard  him  with  some  patience,  till  he  came  to  upbraid 
them  with  the  idolatry,  obstinacy,  and  perverseness  of 
themselves  and  their  fathers,  which  so  highly  provoked 
them,  that  they  declared  themselves  his  enemies,  and 
would  soon  have  procured  his  ruin,  had  he  not  been  pro- 


286  MAHOMETA.NISM. 

tected  by  Abu  Taleb.  The  chief  of  the  Koreish  warmly 
solicited  this  person  to  desert  his  nephew,  ranking  frequent 
remonstrances  against  the  innovations  he  was  attempting: 
which  proving  ineffectual,  they  at  length  threatened  him 
with  an  open  rupture  if  he  did  not  prevail  on  Mahumet  to 
desist.  At  this  Abu  Taleb  was  so  far  moved  that  he 
earnestly  dissuaded  his  nephew  from  pursuing  the  affair 
any  further,  representing  the  great  danger  that  he  and  his 
friends  must  otherwise  run.  But  Mahomet  was  not  to  be 
intimidated ;  telling  his  uncle  plainly,  that  if  they  set  the 
sun  against  him  on  his  right  hand,  and  the  moon  on  his 
left,  he  would  not  leave  his  enterprise ;  and  Abu  Taleb, 
seeing  him  so  firmly  resolved  to  proceed,  used  no  further 
arguments,  but  promised  to  stand  by  him  against  all  his 
enemies. 

The  Koreish,  finding  they  could  prevail  neither  by  fair 
words  nor  menaces,  tried  what  they  could  do  by  force  and 
ill  treatment ;  using  Mahomet's  followers  so  very  injuri- 
ously, that  it  was  not  safe  for  them  to  continue  at  Mecca 
any  longer ;  whereupon  Mahomet  gave  leave  to  such  of 
them  as  had  no  friends  to  protect  them  to  seek  for  refuge 
elsewhere.  And  accordingly,  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  pro- 
phet's mission,  sixteen  of  them,  four  of  whom  were  women, 
fled  into  Ethiopia ;  and  among  them  Othman  Ebn  Affan, 
and  his  wife  Rakiah,  Mahomet's  daughter.  This  was  the 
first  flight ;  but  afterwards  several  others  followed  them, 
retiring  one  after  another,  to  the  number  of  eighty- three 
men  and  eighteen  women,  besides  children.  These  refu- 
gees were  kindly  received  by  the  Najashi,  or  king  of  Ethio- 
pia, who  refused  to  deliver  them  up  to  those  whom  the 
Koreish  sent  to  demand  them,  and,  as  the  Arab  writers 
unanimously  attest,  even  professsed  the  Mahometan  reli- 
gion. 

In  the  sixth  year  of  his  mission.  Mahomet  had  the  plea- 


MAHOMETANISM.  287 

sure  of  seeing  his  party  strengthened  by  the  conversion  of 
his  uncle  Hamza,  a  man  of  great  valor  and  merit ;  and  of 
Omar  Ebn  al  Kattab,  a  person  highly  esteemed,  and  once 
a  violent  opposer  of  the  prophet.  As  persecution  gene- 
rally advances  rather  than  obstructs  the  spreading  of  a 
religion,  Islamism  made  so  great  a  progress  among  the 
Arab  tribes,  that  the  Koreish,  to  suppress  it  effectually,  if 
possible,  in  the  seventh  year  of  Mahomet's  mission,  made 
a  solemn  league  or  covenant  against  the  Hashemites  and 
the  family  of  Abd'almotalleb,  engaging  themselves  to  con- 
tract no  marriage  with  any  of  them,  and  to  have  no  com- 
munication with  them ;  and  to  give  it  the  greater  sanction, 
reduced  it  to  writing,  and  laid  it  up  in  the  Caaba.  Upon 
this,  the  tribe  became  divided  into  two  factions ;  and  the 
family  of  Hashem  all  repaired  to  Abu  Taleb,  as  their  head ; 
except  only  Abd'al  Uzza,  surnamed  the  Abu  Laheb,  who, 
out  of  inveterate  hatred  to  his  nephew  and  his  doctrine, 
went  over  to  the  opposite  party,  whose  chief  was  Abu 
Sosian  Ebn  Harb,  of  the  family  of  Ommeya. 

The  families  continued  thus  at  variance  for  three  years ; 
but  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  mission,  Mahomet  told  his 
uncle  Abu  Taleb,  that  God  had  manifestly  showed  his  dis- 
approbation of  the  league  which  the  Koreish  had  made 
against  them,  by  sending  a  worm  to  eat  out  every  word  of 
the  instrument  except  the  name  of  G-od.  Of  this  accident 
Mahomet  had  probably  some  private  notice;  for  Abu 
Taleb  went  immediately  to  the  Koreish,  and  acquainted 
them  with  it ;  offering,  if  it  proved  false,  to  deliver  his 
nephew  up  to  them ;  but,  in  case  it  were  true,  he  insisted 
that  they  ought  to  lay  aside  their  animosity,  and  annul 
the  league  they  had  made  against  the  Hashemites.  To 
this  they  acquiesced ;  and  going  to  inspect  the  writing,  to 
their  great  astonishment  found  it  to  be  as  Abu  Taleb  had 
said ;  and  the  league  was  thereupon  declared  void. 


288  MAHOMETANISM. 

In  the  same  year  Abu  Taleb  died  at  the  age  of  above 
fourscore,  and  it  is  the  general  opinion  that  he  died  an 
infidel ;  though  others  say  that,  when  he  was  at  the  point 
of  death  he  embraced  Mahometanism,  and  produce  some 
passages  out  of  his  poetical  compositions  to  confirm  their 
assertion.  About  a  month,  or,  as  some  write,  three  days, 
after  the  death  of  this  great  benefactor  and  patron,  Ma 
hornet  had  the  additional  mortification  to  lose  his  wife 
Khadijah,  who  had  so  generously  made  his  fortune.  For 
which  reason  this  year  is  called  the  year  of  mourning. 

On  the  death  of  these  two  persons,  the  Koreish  began 
to  be  more  troublesome  than  ever  to  their  prophet,  and 
especially  some  who  had  formerly  been  his  intimate  friends ; 
insomuch  that  he  found  himself  obliged  to  seek  for  shelter 
elsewhere,  and  first  pitched  upon  Tayef,  about  sixty  miles 
east  from  Mecca,  for  the  place  of  his  retreat.  Thither, 
therefore,  he  went,  accompanied  by  his  servant  Zeid,  and 
applied  himself  to  two  of  the  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Thakif, 
who  were  the  inhabitants  of  that  place  ;  but  they  received 
him  very  coldly.  However,  he  stayed  there  a  month ;  and 
some  of  the  more  considerate  and  better  sort  of  men 
treated  him  with  a  little  respect ;  but  the  slaves  and  inferior 
people  at  length  rose  against  him  ;  and  bringing  him  to 
the  wall  of  the  city,  obliged  him  to  depart  and  return  to 
Mecca,  where  he  put  himself  under  the  protection  of  Al 
Mo*iam  Ebn  Ali. 

?.''iis  repulse  greatly  discouraged  his  followers.  How 
<swr,  Mahomet  was  not  wanting  «o  himself,  but  boldly  con- 
tinued to  preach  to  the  public  assemblies  at  the  pilgrimage, 
and  gained  several  proselytes ;  and,  among  them,  six  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Yathreb,  of  the  Jewish  tribe  of  Khazraj  ; 
who,  on  their  return  home,  failed  not  to  speak  much  in 
recommendation  of  their  new  religion,  and  exhorted  their 
fellow-citizens  to  embrace  the  same. 


MAHGMETANISM.  289 

In  the  twelfth  year  of  his  mission  it  was  that  Mahomet 
gave  out  that  he  had  made  his  night  journey  from  Mecca 
to  Jerusalem,  and  thence  to  heaven,  so  much  spoken  of  by 
all  that  write  of  him.  Dr.  Prideaux  thinks  he  invented  it 
either  to  answer  the  expectations  of  those  who  demanded 
some  miracle  as  a  proof  of  his  mission ;  or  else,  by  pre- 
tending to  have  conversed  with  God,  to  establish  the 
authority  of  whatever  he  should  think  fit  to  leave  behind 
by  way  of  oral  tradition,  and  make  his  sayings  to  serve 
the  same  purpose  as  the  oral  law  of  the  Jews.  But  it  does 
not  appear  that  Mahomet  himself  ever  expected  so  great 
a  regard  should  be  paid  to  his  sayings  as  his  followers  have 
since  done ;  and  seeing  he  all  along  disclaimed  any  power 
of  performing  miracles,  it  seems  rather  to  have  been  a 
fetch  of  policy  to  raise  his  reputation,  by  pretending  to 
nave  accuailv  conversed  with  God  in  heaven,  as  Moses 
had  heretofore  Jone  in  the  mount,  and  to  have  received 
several  institutions  immediately  from  him,  whereas,  before, 
he  contented  himscii  with  persuading  them  that  he  had 
all  by  the  ministry  cv  Gabriel. 

However,  this  story  seemed  so  absurd  and  incredible, 
that  several  of  his  followers  left  him  upon  it;  and  had 
probably  ruined  the  whole  design,  had  not  Abu  Beer 
vouched  for  his  veracity,  and  declared  that  if  Mahomet 
affirmed  it  to  be  true,  he  verily  believed  the  whole.  Which 
happy  incident  not  only  retrieved  the  prophet's  credit,  but 
increased  it  to  such  a  degree,  that  he  was  secure  of  being 
able  to  make  his  disciples  swallow  whatever  he  pleased  to 
impose  on  them  for  the  future.  And  this  fiction,  notwith- 
standing its  extravagance,  was  one  of  the  most  artful  con- 
trivances Mahomet  ever  put  in  practice,  and  what  chiefly 
contributed  to  the  raising  of  his  reputation  to  that  great 
height  to  which  it  afterwards  arrived. 

In  this  year,  called  by  the  Mahometans  the  accepted 

25  T 


290  MAHOMETANISM. 

year,  twelve  men  of  Yathreb  or  Medina,  of  whom  ten  were 
rf  the  tribe  of  Khazraj,  and  the  other  two  of  that  of  A\vs, 
}aine  to  Mecca,  and  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  Mahomet 
it  Al  Akaba,  a  hill  on  the  north  of  that  city.  This  oath 
was  called  the  woman's  oath;  not  that  any  women  were 
present  at  this  time,  but  because  a  man  was  not  thereby 
Dbliged  to  take  up  arms  in  defence  of  Mahomet  or  his 
religion;  it  being  the  same  oath  that  was  afterwards 
exacted  of  the  women,  the  form  of  which  we  have  in  the 
Koran,  and  is  to  this  effect,  viz. :  That  they  should  re- 
lounce  all  idolatry;  and  that  they  should  not  steal,  nor 
commit  fornication,  nor  kill  their  children  (as  the  pagan 
Arabs  used  to  do  when  they  apprehended  they  should  not 
be  able  to  maintain  them),  nor  forge  calumnies ;  and  that 
they  should  obey  the  prophet  in  all  things  that  were 
reasonable.  When  they  had  solemnly  engaged  to  all  this, 
Mahomet  sent  one  of  his  disciples  named  Masab  Ebn 
Omair  home  with  them,  to  instruct  them  more  fully  in 
the  grounds  and  ceremonies  of  his  new  religion. 

Masab,  being  arrived  at  Medina,  by  the  assistance  of 
those  who  had  been  formerly  converted,  gained  several  pro- 
selytes, particularly  Osed  Ebn  Hodeira,  a  chief  man  of  the 
city,  and  Saad  Ebn  Moadh,  prince  of  the  tribe  of  the  Aws ; 
Mahometanisrn  spreading  so  fast,  that  there  was  scarce  a 
house  wherein  there  were  not  some  who  had  embraced  it. 

The  next  year,  being  the  thirteenth  of  Mahomet's  mis- 
sion, Masab  returned  to  Mecca,  accompanied  by  seventy- 
three  men  and  two  women  of  Medina  who  had  professed 
Islamism,  besides  some  others  who  were  as  yet  unbelievers. 
On  their  arrival  they  immediately  sent  to  Mahomet,  and 
offered  him  their  assistance,  of  which  he  was  now  in  great 
need ;  for  his  adversaries  were  by  this  time  grown  so  pow- 
erful in  Mecca,  that  he  could  not  stay-  there  much  longer 
without  imminent  danger.  Wherefore  he  accepted  tLeii 


MAHOMETANISM.  2i»J 

proposal,  and  met  them  one  night,  by  appointment,  at  Al 
Akaba  above  mentioned,  attended  by  his  uncle  Al  Abbas ; 
who,  though  he  was  not  then  a  believer,  wished  his  nephew 
well,  and  made  a  speech  to  those  of  Medina  ;  wherein  he 
told  them  that,  as  Mahomet  was  obliged  to  quit  his  native 
city  and  seek  an  asylum  elsewhere,  and  they  had  offered 
him  their  protection,  they  would  do  well  not  to  deceive  him : 
that  if  they  were  not  firmly  resolved  to  defend,  and  not 
betray  him,  they  had  better  declare  their  minds,  and  let 
him  provide  for  his  safety  in  some  other  manner.  Upon 
their  protesting  their  sincerity,  Mahomet  swore  to  be  faith- 
ful to  them,  on  condition  that  they  should  protect  him 
against  all  insults  as  heartily  as  they  would  their  own  wivps 
and  families.  They  then  asked  him  what  recompense  they 
were  to  expect,  if  they  should  happen  to  be  killed  in  his 
quarrel  ?  He  answered,  Paradise.  Whereupon  they  pledged 
their  faith  to  him,  and  so  returned  home  after  Mahomet 
had  chosen  twelve  out  of  their  number,  who  were  to  have 
the  same  authority  among  them  as  the  twelve  apostles  of 
Christ  had  among  his  disciples. 

Hitherto  Mahomet  had  propagated  his  religion  by  fair 
means ;  so  that  the  whole  success  of  his  enterprise  before 
his  flight  to  Medina  must  be  attributed  to  persuasion  only, 
and  not  to  compulsion.  For  before  this  second  onth  of 
fealty  or  inauguration  at  Al  Akaba,  he  had  no  permission 
to  use  any  force  at  all ;  and  in  several  places  of  the  Koran, 
which  he  pretended  were  revealed  during  his  stay  at  Mecca, 
he  declares  his  business  was  only  to  preach  and  admonish; 
that  he  had  no  authority  to  compel  any  person  to  embrace 
his  religion ;  and  that,  whether  people  believe  or  not,  was 
none  of  his  concern,  but  belonged  solely  unto  God.  And 
he  was  so  far  from  allowing  his  followers  to  use  force,  that 
he  exhorted  them  to  bear  patiently  those  injuries  which 
were  offered  them  on  account  of  their  faith;  and,  when. 


292  MAHOMET  AN  ISM. 

persecuted  himself,  he  chose  rather  to  quit  the  place  of  hia 
birth,  and  retire  to  Medina,  than  to  make  any  resistance. 
But  this  great  passiveness  and  moderation  seem  entirely 
owing  to  his  want  of  power,  and  the  great  superiority  of 
his  opposers,  for  the  first  twelve  years  of  his  mission  ;  for 
no  sooner  was  he  enabled,  by  the  assistance  of  those  of  Me- 
dina, to  make  head  against  his  enemies,  than  he  gave  out, 
that  God  had  allowed  him  and  his  followers  to  defend  them 
selves  against  the  infidels ;  and  at  length,  as  his  forces 
increased,  he  pretended  to  have  the  divine  leave  even  to 
attack  them,  and  destroy  idolatry,  and  set  up  the  true  faith 
by  the  sword  ;  finding  by  experience,  that  his  designs  would 
otherwise  proceed  very  slowly,  if  they  were  not  utterly 
overthrown  ;  and  knowing,  on  the  other  hand,  that  innova- 
ters,  when  they  depend  solely  on  their  own  strength,  and  can 
compel,  seldom  run  any  risk ;  from  whence,  says  Machiavel, 
it  follows  that  all  the  armed  prophets  have  succeeded,  and 
the  unarmed  ones  have  failed.  Moses,  Cyrus,  Theseus, 
and  Romulus,  would  not  have  been  able  to  establish  the 
observance  of  their  institution  for  any  length  of  time,  had 
they  not  been  armed.  The  first  passage  of  the  Koran  which 
gave  Mahomet  the  permission  of  defending  himself  by  arms, 
is  said  to  have  been  that  in  the  twenty-second  chapter ; 
after  which,  a  great  number  to  the  same  purpose  were 
revealed. 

Mahomet,  having  provided  for  the  security  ^f  his  com- 
panions, as  well  as  his  own,  by  the  league  offensive  and 
defensive  which  he  had  now  concluded  with  those  of  Me- 
dina, directed  them  to  repair  thither,  which  they  accord- 
ingly did  ;  but  himself,  with  Abu  Beer  and  Ali,  staid  be- 
hind, having  not  yet  received  the  divine  permission,  as  he 
pretended,  to  leave  Mecca.  The  Koreish,  fearing  the  con- 
sequence of  this  new  alliance,  began  to  think  it  absolutely 
accessary  to  prevent  Mahomet's  escape  to  Medina ;  and 


MAHOMETANISM.  293 

having  neld  a  council  thereon,  after  several  milder  expe- 
dients had  been  rejected,  they  came  to  a  resolution  that  he 
should  he  killed ;  and  agreed  that  a  man  should  he  chosen 
out  of  every  tribe  for  the  execution  of  this  design ;  and  that 
each  man  should  have  a  blow  at  him  with  his  sword,  that 
the  guilt  of  his  blood  might  fall  equally  on  all  the  tribes,  to 
whose  united  power  the  Hashemites  were  much  inferior, 
and  therefore  durst  not  attempt  to  revenge  their  kinsman's 
death. 

This  conspiracy  was  scarce  formed,  when,  by  some  means 
or  other,  it  came  to  Mahomet's  knowledge,  and  he  gave 
out  that  it  was  revealed  to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  who 
had  now  ordered  him  to  retire  to  Medina.  Whereupon,  to 
amuse  his  enemies,  he  directed  AH  to  lie  down  in  his  place, 
and  wrap  himself  up  ir  his  green  cloak,  which  he  did ;  and 
Mahomet  escaped  miraculously,  as  they  pretended,  to  Abu 
Beer's  house,  unperceived  by  the  conspirators,  who  had 
ilready  assembled  at  the  prophet's  door.  They,  in  the 
meantime,  looking  through  the  crevice,  and  seeing  Ali, 
vltom  they  took  to  be  Mahomet  himself,  asleep,  continued 
watching  there  till  morning,  when  Ali  arose,  and  they  found 
themselves  deceived. 

From  Abu  Beer's  house  Mahomet  and  he  went  to  a  cave 
in  mount  Thur,  to  the  southeast  of  Mecca,  accompanied 
only  by  Amor  Ebn  Foheirah,  Abu  Beer's  servant,  and 
Abd'allah  Ebri  Oreitah,  an  idolater  whom  they  had  hired 
for  a  guide.  In  this  cave  they  lav  hid  three  days,  to  avoid 
the  search  of  their  enemies ;  which  they  very  narrowly 
escaped,  and  not  without  the  assistance  of  more  miracles 
than  one ;  for  some  say  that  the  Koreish  were  struck  with 
blindness,  so  that  they  could  not  find  the  cave ;  others, 
that  after  Mahomet  and  his  companions  were  got  in,  two 
pigeons  laid  their  eggs  at  the  entrance,  and  a  spider  covered 

25  « 


791  MAHOMETAN1SM. 

the  mouth  of  the  cave  with  her  web,  which  made  them  look 
no  further.  Abu  Beer,  seeing  the  prophet  in  such  immi- 
nent danger,  became  very  sorrowful ;  whereupon  Mahomet 
comforted  him  with  these  words,  recorded  in  the  Koran : 
He  not  grieved,  for  Crod  is  with  us.  Their  enemies  being 
retired,  they  left  the  cave,  and  set  out  for  Medina  by  a 
by-road  ;  and  having  fortunately,  or,  as  the  Mahometans 
tell  us,  miraculously,  escaped  some  who  were  sent  to  pur- 
sue  them,  arrived  safely  at  that  city ;  whither  Ali  fol- 
lowed them  in  three  days,  after  he  had  settled  some  affairs 
at  Mecca. 

Mahomet  being  securely  settled  at  Medina,  and  able  not 
only  to  defend  himself  against  the  insults  of  his  enemies, 
but  to  attack  them,  began  to  send  out  small  parties  to  make 
reprisals  on  the  Koreish ;  the  first  party  consisting  of  no 
more  than  nine  men,  who  intercepted  and  plundered  a 
caravan  belonging  to  that  tribe,  and  in  the  action  took  two 
prisoners.  But  what  established  his  affairs  very  much,  and 
was  the  foundation  on  which  he  built  all  his  succeeding 
greatness,  was  the  gaining  of  the  battle  of  Bedr,  which  was 
fought  in  the  second  year  of  the  Hegira,  and  is  so  famous 
in  the  Mahometan  history.  Some  reckon  no  less  than 
twenty-seven  expeditions,  wherein  Mahomet  was  personally 
present,  in  nine  of  which  he  gave  battle,  besides  several 
other  expeditions  in  which  he  was  not  present.  His  forces 
he  maintained  partly  by  the  contributions  of  his  followers 
for  this  purpose,  which  he  called  by  the  name  of  zacat,  or 
alms,  and  the  paying  of  which  he  very  artfully  made  one 
main  article  of  his  religion  :  and  partly  by  ordering  a  fifth 
part  of  the  plunder  to  be  brought  into  the  public  treasury 
for  that  purpose,  in  which  matter  he  likewise  pretended  tc 
act  by  the  divine  direction. 

In  a  few  years,  by  the  success  of  his  arms,  notwithstand- 
ing he  sometimes  came  off  with  the  worst,  he  considerably 


MAHOMETANISM.  295 

raised  his  credit  and  power.  In  the  sixth  year  of  the  He- 
gira  he  set  out  with  1400  men  to  visit  the  temple  of  Mecca, 
not  with  any  intent  of  committing  hostilities,  hut  in  a  peace- 
able manner.  However,  when  he  came  to  Al  Hodeibiya, 
which  is  situated  partly  within  and  partly  without  the  sa- 
cred territory,  the  Koreish  sent  to  let  him  know  that  they 
would  not  permit  him  to  enter  Mecca,  unless  he  forced  his 
way :  whereupon  he  called  his  troops  about  him,  and  they 
all  took  a  solemn  oath  of  fealty  or  homage  to  him,  and  he 
resolved  to  attack  the  city;  but  those  of  Mecca  sending 
Arwa  Ebn  Masun,  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Thakif,  as  their 
ambassador,  to  desire  peace,  a  truce  was  concluded  between 
them  for  ten  years,  by  which  any  person  was  allowed  to 
enter  into  a  league  either  with  Mahomet,  or  with  the  Koreish, 
as  he  thought  fit. 

In  the  seventh  year  of  the  Hegira,  Mahomet  began  to 
think  of  propagating  his  religion  beyond  the  bounds  of 
Arabia,  and  sent  messengers  to  the  neighboring  princes, 
with  letters  to  invite  them  to  Mahometanism.  Nor  was 
this  project  without  some  success  :  Khosru  Parviz,  then 
king  of  Persia,  received  his  letter  with  great  disdain,  and 
tore  it  in  a  passion,  sending  away  the  messenger  very 
abruptly ;  which,  when  Mahomet  heard,  he  said,  Grod  shall 
tear  his  kingdom.  And  soon  after  a  messenger  came  to 
Mahomet  from  Badhan,  king  of  Yaman,  who  was  a  depen- 
dent on  the  Persians,  to  acquaint  him  that  he  had  received 
orders  to  send  him  to  Khosru.  Mahomet  put  off  his  an- 
swer till  the  next  morning,  and  then  told  the  messenger  it 
had  been  revealed  to  him  that  night  that  Kliosruwas  slain 
by  his  son  Shiruyeh :  adding,  that  he  was  well  assured  his 
new  religion  and  empire  should  rise  to  as  great  a  height,  as 
that  of  Khosru :  and  therefore  bid  him  advise  his  master 
to  embrace  Mahometanism.  The  messenger  being  returned, 
Badhan  in  a  fer  days  received  a  letter  from  Shiruyeh,  in- 


296  MAHOMETANISM. 

forming  him  of  his  father's  death,  and  ordering  him  to  give 
the  prophet  no  further  disturbance.  Whereupon  Badhan, 
and  the  Persians  with  him,  turned  Mahometans. 

The  emperor  Heraclius,  as  the  Arabian  historians  assure 
us,  received  Mahomet's  letter  with  great  respect,  laying  it 
on  his  pillow,  and  dismissed  the  hearer  honorably.  And 
some  pretend  that  he  would  have  professed  this  new  faith, 
had  he  not  been  afraid  of  losing  his  crown. 

Mahomet  wrote  to  the  same  effect  to  the  king  of  Ethio- 
pia, though  he  had  been  converted  before,  according  to  the 
Arab  writers ;  and  to  Mokawkas,  governor  of  Egypt,  who 
gave  the  messenger  a  very  favorable  reception,  and  sent 
several  valuable  presents  to  Mahomet,  and  among  the  rest 
two  girls,  one  of  whom,  named  Mary,  became  a  great  favo- 
rite with  him.  He  also  sent  letters  of  the  like  purport  to 
several  Arab  princes ;  particularly  one  to  Al  Hareth  Ebn 
Abi  Shamer,  king  of  Ghassan,  who,  returning  for  answer 
that  he  would  go  to  Mahomet  himself,  the  prophet  said. 
May  his  kingdom  perish  !  Another  to  Hawdha  Ebn  Ali, 
king  of  Yamama,  who  was  a  Christian,  and,  having  some 
time  before  professed  Islamism,  had  lately  returned  to  hig 
former  faith :  this  prince  sent  back  a  very  rough  answer, 
upon  which  Mahomet  cursing  him,  he  died  soon  after ;  and 
a  third  to  Al  Mondar  Ebn  Sawa,  king  of  Bahrein,  who 
embraced  Mahometanism,  and  all  the  Arabs  of  that  country 
followed  his  example. 

The  eighth  year  of  the  Hegira  was  a  very  fortunate 
year  to  Mahomet.  In  the  beginning  of  it  Khaled  Ebn  a] 
Walid  and  Amru  Ebn  al  As,  both  excellent  soldiers,  the 
first  of  whom  afterwards  conquered  Syria  and  other  coun- 
tries, and  the  latter  Egypt,  became  proselytes  to  Mahome- 
tanism. And  soon  after  the  prophet  sent  3000  men  against 
the  Grecian  forces,  to  revenge  the  death  of  one  of  his  am- 
bassadors, who,  being  sent  to  the  governor  of  Bosra  on  the 


MAHOME1ANISM  297 

same  errand  as  those  who  went  to  tho  above-mentioned 
princes,  was  slain  by  un  Arab  of  the  tribe  of  Ghassan,  at 
Muta,  a  town  in  the  territory  of  Balka,  in  Syria,  about 
three  days'  journey  eastward  from  Jerusalem,  near  which 
town  they  encountered.  The  Grecians  being  vastly  supe- 
rior in  number  (for,  including  the  auxiliary  Arabs,  they 
had  an  army  of  100,000  men),  the  Mahometans  were  re- 
pulsed in  the  first  attack,  and  lost  successively  three  of 
their  generals,  viz.,  Zeid  Ebn  Haretha,  Mahomet's  freed' 
man ;  Jassar,  the  son  of  Abu  Taleb ;  and  Abdalia  Ebn 
Rawalia:  but  Khaled  Ebn  al  Walid,  succeeding  to  the 
command,  overthrew  the  Greeks  with  great  slaughter,  and 
brought  away  abundance  of  rich  spoil :  on  occasion  of  which 
action  Mahomet  gave  him  the  title  of  Seif  min  soy uf  Allah, 
"  one  of  the  swords  of  God." 

In  this  year  also  Mahomet  took  the  city  of  Mecca,  the 
inhabitants  whereof  had  broken  the  truce  concluded  on  two 
years  before  ;  for  the  tribe  of  Beer,  who  were  confederates 
with  the  Koreish,  attacking  those  of  Kozaah,  who  were 
allies  of  Mahomet,  killed  several  of  them,  being  supported 
in  the  action  by  a  party  of  the  Koreish  themselves.  The 
consequence  of  this  violation  was  soon  apprehended,  and 
Abu  Sosian  himself  made  a  journey  to  Medina  on  purpose 
to  heal  the  breach  and  renew  the  truce,  but  in  vain ;  for 
Mahomet,  glad  of  this  opportunity,  refused  to  see  him ; 
whereupon  he  applied  to  Abu  Beer  and  Ali ;  but  they 
giving  him  no  answer,  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  Mecca 
as  he  came. 

Mahomet  immediately  gave  orders  for  preparations  to 
be  made  that  he  might  surprise  the  Meccans  while  they 
were  unprovided  to  receive  him  :  in  a  little  time  he  began 
his  march  thither ;  and  by  the  time  he  came  near  the  city, 
his  forces  were  increased  to  ten  thousand  men.  Those  of 
Mecca  not  being  in  a  condition  to  defend  themselves  against 


298  MAHOMETANISM. 

BO  formidable  an  army,  surrendered  at  discretion,  and  Abu 
Sosian  saved  his  life  by  turning  Mahometan.  About 
twenty-eight  of  the  idolaters  were  killed  by  a  party  under 
the  command  of  Khaled ;  but  this  happened  contrary  to 
Mahomet's  orders,  who,  when  he  entered  the  town,  par- 
doned all  the  Koreish  on  their  submission,  except  only  six 
men  and  four  women,  who  were  more  obnoxious  than  ordi- 
nary (some  of  them  having  apostatized),  and  were  solemnly 
proscribed  by  the  prophet  himself;  but  of  these  no  more 
than  one  man  and  one  woman  were  put  to  death,  the  rest 
obtaining  pardon  on  their  embracing  Mahometanism,  and 
one  of  the  women  making  her  escape. 

The  remainder  of  this  year  Mahomet  employed  in  de- 
stroying the  idols  in  and  around  Mecca,  sending  several 
of  the  generals  on  expeditions  for  that  purpose,  and  to 
invite  the  Arabs  to  Islamism ;  wherein  it  is  no  wonder  if 
they  now  met  with  success. 

The  next  year,  being  the  ninth  of  the  Hegira,  the  Ma- 
hometans call  the  year  of  embassies;  for  the  Arabs  had 
been  hitherto  expecting  the  issue  of  the  war  between  Ma- 
homet and  the  Koreish ;  but  as  soon  as  that  tribe,  the 
principal  of  the  whole  nation,  and  the  genuine  descendants 
of  Ishmael,  whose  prerogatives  none  offered  to  dispute, 
had  submitted,  they  were  satisfied  that  it  was  not  in  their 
power  to  oppose  Mahomet ;  and  therefore  began  to  come 
in  to  him  in  great  numbers,  and  to  send  embassies  to  make 
their  submissions  to  him,  both  to  Mecca,  while  he  staid 
there,  and  also  to  Medina,  whither  he  returned  this  year. 
Among  the  rest,  five  kings  of  the  tribe  of  Hamyar  pro 
fessed  Mahometanism,  and  sent  ambassadors  to  notify  the 
same. 

In  the  tenth  year  Ali  was  sent  into  Yaman  to  propagate 
the  Mahometan  faith  there  j  and,  as  it  is  said,  converted 
the  whole  tribe  of  Hamdan  in  one  day.  Their  example 


MAHOMETANISM.  299 

wa?  quickly  followed  by  all  the  inhabitants  of  that  pro- 
vince, except  only  those  of  Naji'an,  who,  being  Christians, 
chose  rather  to  pay  tribute. 

Thus  was  Mahometanism  established,  and  idolatry  rooted 
out,  even  in  Mahomet's  lifetime  (for  he  died  the  next  year), 
throughout  all  Arabia,  except  only  Yamama,  where  Mo- 
Beilama,  who  set  up  also  as  a  prophet,  as  Mahomet's  com- 
petitor, had  a  great  party,  and  was  not  reduced  till  the 
kalifat  of  Abu  Beer ;  and  the  Arabs  being  then  united  in 
one  faith,  and  under  one  prince,  found  themselves  in  a 
condition  of  making  those  conquests  which  extended  the 
Mahometan  faith  over  so  great  a  part  of  the  world. 

1.  Tenets  of  the  Mahometans. — The  Mahometans  divide 
their  religion  into  two  general  parts,  faith  and  practice ; 
of  which  the  first  is  divided  into  six  distinct  branches : 
Belief  in  God,  in  his  angels,  in  his  Scriptures,  in  his  pro- 
phets, in  the  resurrection  and  final  judgment,  and  in  God's 
absolute  decrees.     The   points    relating   to   practice  are. 
prayer,  with  washings,  etc.,  alms,  fasting,  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca,  and  circumcision. 

Of  the  Mahometan  Faith. — 1.  That  both  Mahomet,  and 
those  among  his  followers  who  are  reckoned  orthodox,  had 
and  continue  to  have  just  and  true  notions  of  God  and  his 
attributes,  appears  so  plain  from  the  Koran  itself,  and  all 
the  Mahometan  divines,  that  it  would  be  loss  of  time  to 
refute  those  who  suppose  the  God  of  Mahomet  to  be  differ- 
ent from  the  true  God,  and  only  a  fictitious  deity  or  idol 
of  his  own  creation. 

2.  The  existence  of  angels  and  their  purity,  are  abso- 
lutely required  to  be  believed  in  the  Koran ;  and  he  is 
reckoned  an  infidel  who  denies  there  are  such  beings,  or 
hates   any  of  them,   or  asserts   any  distinction   of  sexes 
among  them.     They  believe  them  to  have  pure  and  subtle 
bodies,  created  of  fire;  that  they  neither  eat  nor  drink, 


200  MAHOMETANISM. 

nor  propagate  their  species ;  that  they  have  various  forms 
and  offices,  some  adoring  God  in  different  postures,  others 
singing  praises  to  him,  or  interceding  for  mankind.  They 
hold  that  some  of  them  are  employed  in  writing  down  the 
actions  of  men ;  others  in  carrying  the  throne  of  God, 
and  other  services. 

3.  As  to  the  Scriptures,  the  Mahometans  are  taught  by 
the  Koran  that  God,  in  divers  ages  of  the  world,  gave 
revelations  of  his  wUl  in  writing  to  several  prophets,  the 
whole  and  every  one  of  which  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  a  good  Moslem  to  believe.    The  number  of  these  sacred 
books  were,  according  to  them,  one  hundred  and  four ;  of 
which  ten  were   given  to  Adam,  fifty  to  Seth,  thirty  to 
Edris  or  Enoch,  ten  to  Abraham ;    and   the  other  four, 
being  the  Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  the  Gospel,  and  the 
Koran,  were  successively  delivered  to  Moses,  David,  Jesus, 
and  Mahomet ;  which  last  being  the  seal  of  the  prophets, 
those  revelations  are  now  closed,  and  no  more  are  to  be 
expected.     All  these  divine  books,  except  the  four  last, 
they  agree  to  be  now  entirely  lost,  and  their  contents  un- 
known; though  the  Sabians  have  several  books  which  they 
attribute  to  some  of  the  antediluvian  prophets.     And  of 
those  four,  the  Pentateuch,  Psalms,  and  Gospel,  they  say, 
have  undergone  so  many  alterations  and  corruptions,  that 
though  there  may  possibly  be  some  part  of  the  true  word 
of  God  therein,  yet  no  credit  is  to  be  given  to  the  present 
copies  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews  and  Christians. 

4.  The  number  of  the  prophets  which  have  been  from 
time  to  time  sent  by  God  into  the  world,  amounts  to  no 
less  than  224,000,  according  to  one  Mahometan  tradition, 
or  to  124,000,  according  to  another;  among  whom  313 
were  apostles,  sent  with  special  commissions  to  reclaim 
mankind  from  infidelity  and  superstition  ;  and  six  of  them 
brought  new  iaws  or  dispensations.,  which  successively  ab- 


MAHOMETANISM.  301 

rogated  the  preceding ;  these  were  Adam,  Noah,  Abra- 
ham, Moses,  Jesus,  and  Mahomet.  All  the  prophets  in 
general  the  Mahometans  believe  to  have  been  free  from 
great  sins  and  errors  of  consequence,  and  professors  of 
one  and  the  same  religion  —  that  is,  Islamism  —  notwith- 
standing the  different  laws  and  institutions  which  they 
observed.  They  allow  of  degrees  among  them,  and  hold 
some  of  them  to  be  more  excellent  and  honorable  than 
others.  The  first  place  they  give  to  the  revealers  and 
estab'ishers  of  new  dispensations,  and  the  next  to  the 
apostles. 

In  this  great  number  of  prophets  they  not  only  reckon 
divers  patriarchs  and  persons  named  in  Scripture,  but  not 
recorded  to  have  been  prophets  (wherein  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  writers  have  sometimes  led  the  way),  as  Adam, 
Seth,  Lot,  Ishmael,  Nun,  Joshua,  etc.,  and  introduce  some 
of  them  under  different  names,  as  JZnoch,  Heber,  and 
Jetfiro,  who  are  called  in  the  Koran  Edris,  Hud,  and 
Shoaib ;  but  several  others  whose  very  names  do  not  ap- 
pear in  Scripture  (though  they  endeavor  to  find  some  per 
Bons  there  to  fix  them  on),  as  Saleh,  Khedr,  Dhu'lkefl,  etc. 

5.  The  belief  of  a  general  resurrection  and  a  future 
judgment. 

The  time  of  the  resurrection  the  Mahometans  allow  to 
be  a  perfect  secret  to  all  but  God  alone;  the  angel  Gabriel 
himself  acknowledging  his  ignorance  on  this  point,  when 
Mahomet  asked  him  about  it.  However,  they  say  the  ap- 
proach of  that  day  may  be  known  from  certain  signs 
which  are  to  precede  it. 

After  examination  is  past  (the  account  of  which  is  too 
long  and  tedious  for  this  place),  and  every  one's  works 
weighed  in  a  just  balance,  they  say  that  mutual  retaliation 
will  follow,  according  to  which  every  creature  will  take 
vengeance  one  of  another,  or  have  satisfaction  made  them 

26 


302  MAHOMETANISM. 

for  the  injuries  which  they  have  suffered.  And,  since  there 
will  then  be  no  other  way  of  returning  like  for  like,  the 
manner  of  giving  this  satisfaction  will  be  by  taking  away 
a  proportional  part  of  the  good  works  of  him  who  offered 
the  injury,  and  adding  it  to  those  of  him  who  suffered  it. 
Which  being  done,  if  the  angels  (by  whose  ministry  this  is 
to  be  performed)  say,  Lord,  we  have  given  to  every  one  his 
due,  and  there  remaineth  of  this  person  s  good  works  so 
much  as  equalleth  the  weight  of  an  ant,  God  will,  of  his 
mercy,  cause  it  to  be  doubled  unto  him,  that  he  may  be 
admitted  into  Paradise  ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  his  good 
works  be  exhausted,  and  there  remain  evil  works  only,  and 
there  be  any  who  have  not  yet  received  satisfaction  from 
him,  God  will  order  that  an  equal  weight  of  their  sins  be 
added  unto  his,  that  he  may  be  punished  for  them  in  their 
stead,  and  he  will  be  sent  to  hell  laden  with  both.  Thia 
will  be  the  method  of  God's  dealing  with  mankind.  As  to 
brutes,  after  they  shall  have  likewise  taken  vengeance  of 
one  another,  he  will  command  .them  to  be  changed  into 
dust;  wicked  men  being  reserved  to  more  grievous  punish- 
ment, so  that  they  shall  cry  out,  on  hearing  this  sentence 
passed  on  the  brutes,  Would  to  Grod  that  we  were  dust 
also  !  As  to  the  genii,  many  Mahometans  are  of  opinion 
that  such  of  them  as  are  true  believers,  will  undergo  the 
same  fate  as  the  irrational  animals,  and  have  no  other  re- 
ward than  the  favor  of  being  converted  into  dust;  and  for 
this  they  quote  the  authority  of  their  prophet. 

The  trials  being  over,  and  the  assembly  dissolved,  the 
Mahometans  hold  that  those  who  are  to  be  admitted  into 
Paradise  will  take  the  right  hand  way,  and  those  who  are 
destined  into  hell  fire  will  take  the  left ;  but  both  of  them 
must  first  pass  the  bridge  called  in  Arabic  Al  Sirat,  which, 
they  say,  is  laid  over  the  midst  of  hell,  and  describe  to  be 
finer  than  a  hair,  and  sharper  than  the  edge  of  a  sword; 


MAHOMETANISM.  30:' 

BO  that  it  seems  very  difficult  to  conceive  how  any  one 
ihall  be  able  to  stand  upon  it ;  for  which  reason  most  of 
the  sect  of  the  Motazalites  reject  it  as  a  fable ;  though  the 
orthodox  think  it  a  sufficient  proof  of  the  truth  of  this 
article,  that  it  was  seriously  affirmed  by  him  who  never 
asserted  a  falsehood,  meaning  their  prophet ;  who,  to  add 
to  the  difficulty  of  the  passage,  has  likewise  declared  tha 
this  bridge  is  beset  on  each  side  with  briers  and  hooked 
thorns,  which  will,  however,  be  no  impediment  to  the  good ; 
for  they  shall  pass  with  wonderful  ease  and  swiftness,  like 

J 

lightning,  or  the  wind,  Mahomet  and  his  Moslems  leading 
the  way ;  whereas  the  wicked,  what  with  the  slipperiness 
and  extreme  narrowness  of  the  path,  the  entangling  of  the 
thorns,  and  the  extinction  of  the  light  which  directed  the 
former  to  Paradise,  will  soon  miss  their  footing,  and  fall 
down  headlong  into  hell,  which  is  gaping  beneath  them. 

As  to  the  punishment  of  the  wicked,  the  Mahometans 
are  taught  that  hell  is  divided  into  seven  stories  or  apart- 
ments, one'  below  another,  designed  for  the  reception  of  as 
many  distinct  classes  of  the  damned. 

The  first,  which  they  call  Jehenan,  they  say  will  be  the 
receptacle  of  those  who  acknowledged  one  God,  that  is, 
the  wicked  Mahometans ;  who,  after  having  been  punished 
according  to  their  demerits,  will  at  length  be  released; 
the  second,  named  Ladka,  they  assign  to  the  Jews ;  the 
third,  named  Al  Hotama,  to  the  Christians ;  the  fourth, 
named  Al  Sair,  to  the  Sabians ;  the  fifth,  named  Sakar, 
to  the  Magians ;  the  sixth,  named  Al  Jahin,  to  the  idola- 
ters ;  and  the  seventh,  which  is  the  lowest  and  worst  of 
all,  and  is  called  Al  Hawyat,  to  the  hypocrites,  or  those 
who  outwardly  professed  some  religion,  but  in  their  hearts 
were  of  none.  Over  each  of  these  apartments  they  be- 
lieve there  will  be  set  a  guard  of  angels,  nineteen  in  num- 
ber, to  whom  the  damned  will  confess  the  just  judgment 


304  MAHOMETANISM. 

of  God,  and  beg  them  to  intercede  with  him  for  some  alle- 
viation of  their  pain,  or  that  they  may  be  delivered  by 
being  annihilated. 

Mahomet  has,  in  his  Koran  and  traditions,  been  very 
exact  in  describing  the  various  torments  of  hell,  which, 
according  to  hir_,  the  wicke  ?.  will  suffer,  both  from  intense 
heat  and  excessive  cold.  We  shall,  however,  enter  into 
no  detail  of  them  here,  but  only  observe  that  the  degrees 
of  these  pains  will  also  vary  in  proportion  to  the  crimes 
of  the  sufferer,  and  the  apartment  he  is  condemned  to ; 
and  that  he  who  is  punished  the  most  lightly  of  all  will  be 
shod  with  shoes  of  fire,  the  fervor  of  which  will  cause  hia 
skull  to  boil  like  a  cauldron.  The  condition  of  these  un- 
happy wretches,  as  the  same  prophet  teaches,  cannot  be 
properly  called  either  life  or  death  ;  and  their  misery  will 
be  greatly  increased  by  their  despair  of  being  ever  deli- 
vered from  that  place,  since,  according  to  that  frequent 
expression  in  the  Koran,  they  must  remain  therein  forever. 
It  must  be  remarked,  however,  that  the  infidels  alone  will 
be  liable  to  eternity  of  damnation ;  for  the  Moslems,  or 
those  who  have  embraced  the  true  religion,  and  have  been 
guilty  of  heinous  sins,  will  be  delivered  thence  after  they 
shall  have  expiated  their  crimes  by  their  sufferings.  The 
time  which  these  believers  shall  be  detained  there,  accord- 
ing to  a  tradition  handed  down  from  their  prophet,  will  not 
be  less  than  nine  hundred  years,  nor  more  than  seven 
thousand.  And,  as  to  the  manner  of  their  delivery,  they 
say  that  they  shall  be  distinguished  by  the  marks  of  pros- 
tration on  those  parts  of  their  bodies  with  which  they  used 
to  touch  the  ground  in  pr  ly  >r,  and  over  which  the  fire  will 
therefore  har<e  no  power ;  and  that  being  known  by  this 
characteristic,  they  will  be  released  by  the  mercy  of  God, 
at  the  intercession  of  Mahomet  and  the  blessed ;  where- 
upon those  who  shall  have  been  dead  will  be  restored  tc 


MAHOMETANISM.  305 

life,  as  has  been  said ;  and  those  whose  bodies  shall  have 
contracted  any  sootiness  or  filth  from  the  flames  and  smoke 
of  hell,  will  be  immersed  in  one  of  the  rivers  of  Paradise, 
called  the  River  of  Life,  which  will  wash  them  whiter 
than  pearls. 

The  righteous,  as  the  Mahometans  are  taught  to  believe, 
having  surmounted  the  difficulties,  and  passed  the  sharp 
bridge  above  mentioned,  before  they  enter  Paradise,  will 
be  refreshed  by  drinking  at  the  pond  of  their  prophet, 
who  describes  it  to  be  an  exact  square,  of  a  month's  jour- 
ney in  compass ;  its  water,  which  is  supplied  bj*  two  pipes 
from  Al  Cawihay,  one  of  the  rivers  of  Paradise,  being 
whiter  than  milk  or  silver,  and  more  odoriferous  than 
musk,  with  as  many  cups  set  around  it  as  there  are  stars 
in  the  firmament ;  of  which  water,  whoever  drinks  will 
thirst  no  more  forever.  This  is  the  first  taste  which  the 
blessed  will  have  of  their  future  and  now  near-approaching 
felicity. 

Though  Paradise  be  so  very  frequently  mentioned  in 
the  Koran,  yet  it  is  a  dispute  among  the  Mahometans, 
whether  it  be  already  created,  or  to  be  created  hereafter ; 
the  Motazalites  and  some  other  sectaries  asserting,  that 
there  is  not  at  present  any  such  place  in  nature,  and  that 
the  Paradise  which  the  righteous  will  inhabit  in  the  next 
life  will  be  different  from  that  from  which  Adam  was 
expelled.  However,  the  orthodox  profess  the  contrary, 
maintaining  that  it  was  created  even  before  the  world,  and 
describe  it,  from  their  prophet's  traditions,  in  the  following 
manner :  — 

They  say  it  is  situated  above  the  seven  heavens  (or  in 
the  seventh  heaven,)  and  next  under  the  throne  of  God ; 
and,  to  express  the  amenity  of  the  place,  tell  us,  that  the 
earth  of  it  is  of  the  finest  wheat-flour,  or  of  the  purest 
wusk,  or,  as  others  will  have  it,  of  saffron ;  that  its  stones 

26*  U 


306  MAHOMETANISM. 

are  pearls  and  jacinths,  the  walls  of  its  buildings  enriched 
with  gold  and  silver,  and  that  the  trunks  of  all  its  trees 
are  of  gold;  among  which  the  most  remarkable  is  the  tree 
called  tuba,  or  the  tree  of  happiness.  Concerning  thia 
tree,  they  fable  that  it  stands  in  the  palaie  of  Mahomet, 
though  a  branch  of  it  will  reach  to  the  house  of  every  true 
believer ;  that  it  will  be  laden  with  pomegranates,  grapes, 
dates,  and  other  fruits,  of  surprising  bigness,  and  of  tastes 
unknown  to  mortals.  So  that,  if  a  man  desire  to  eat  of  any 
particular  kind  of  fruit,  it  will  immediately  be  presented 
him ;  or,  if  he  choose  flesh,  birds  ready  dressed  will  be  set 
before  him,  according  to  his  wish.  They  add  that  the 
boughs  of  this  tree  will  spontaneously  bend  down  to  the 
hand  of  the  person  who  would  gather  of  its  fruits,  and  that 
it  will  supply  the  blessed  not  only  with  food,  but  also 
with  silken  garments,  and  beasts  to  ride  on  ready  saddled 
and  bridled,  and  adorned  with  rich  trappings,  which  will 
burst  forth  from  its  fruits ;  and  that  this  tree  is  so  large, 
that  a  person  mounted  on  the  fleetest  horse  would  not  be 
able  to  gallop  from  one  end  of  its  shade  to  the  other  in 
one  hundred  years. 

As  plenty  of  water  is  one  of  the  greatest  additions  to 
the  pleasantness  of  any  place,  the  Koran  often  speaks  of 
the  rivers  of  Paradise  as  a  principal  ornament  thereof; 
some  of  these  rivers,  they  say,  flow  with  water,  some  with 
milk,  some  with  wine,  and  others  with  honey ;  all  taking 
their  rise  from  the  root  of  the  tree  tuba. 

But  all  these  glories  will  be  eclipsed  by  the  resplendent 
and  ravishing  girls  of  Paradise,  called,  from  their  large 
black  eyes,  Hur  al  oyun,  the  enjoyment  of  whose  company 
will  be  a  principal  felicity  of  the  faithful.  These,  they  say, 
are  created  not  of  clay,  as  mortal  women  are,  but  of  pure 
rausk ;  being,  as  their  prophet  often  affirms  in  his  Koran, 
from  all  natural  impurities,  defects,  and  inconveniences 


MAHOMETANISM.  307 

incident  to  the  sex ;  of  the  strictest  modesty,  and  secluded 
from  public  view  in  pavilions  of  hollow  pearls,  so  large, 
that,  as  some  traditions  have  it,  one  of  them  will  be  no 
less  than  four  parasangs  (or,  as  others  say,  sixty  miles) 
long,  and  as  many  broad. 

The  name  which  the  Mahometans  usually  give  to  this 
happy  mansion  is  al  Jannat,  or,  "  the  Garden ;"  and 
sometimes  they  call  it,  with  an  addition,  Jannat  al  Ferdaws, 
"the  Garden  of  Paradise;"  Jannat  Adan,  "the  Garden 
of  Eden,"  (though  they  generally  interpret  the  word  Eden 
not  according  to  its  acceptation  in  Hebrew,  but  according 
to  its  meaning  in  their  own  tongue,  wherein  it  signifies  "a 
settled  or  perpetual  habitation ;")  Jannat  al  Mawa,  "  the 
Garden  of  Abode;"  Jannat  al  Maim,  "the  Garden  of 
Pleasure,"  and  the  like ;  by  which  several  appellations 
some  understand  so  many  different  gardens,  or  at  least 
places  of  different  degrees  of  felicity,  (for  they  reckon  no 
less  than  one  hundred  such  in  all,)  the  very  meanest 
whereof  will  afford  its  inhabitants  so  many  pleasures  and 
delights,  that  one  would  conclude  they  must  even  sink 
under  them,  had  not  Mahomet  declared  that,  in  order  to 
qualify  the  blessed  for  a  full  enjoyment  of  them,  God  will 
give  to  every  one  the  abilities  of  one  hundred  men. 

6.  God's  absolute  decree  and  predestination  both  of 
good  and  evil.  The  orthodox  doctrine  is,  that  whatever 
hath  or  shall  come  to  pass  in  this  world,  whether  it  be 
good,  or  whether  it  be  bad,  proceedeth  entirely  from  the 
Divine  will,  and  is  irrevocably  fixed  and  recorded  from  all 
eternity  in  the  preserved  table ;  God  having  secretly  pre- 
determined not  only  the  adverse  and  prosperous  fortune 
of  every  person  in  this  world,  in  the  most  minute  par- 
ticulars, but  also  his  faith  or  infidelity,  his  obedience  or 
disobedience,  and  consequently  his  everlasting  happiness 
or  misery  after  death ;  which  fate  or  predestination  it  is 
not  possible  by  any  foresight  or  wisdom  to  avoid. 


308  MAHOMETAN1SM. 

II.  Religious  practice.  1.  The  first  point  is  prayer, 
under  which  are  also  comprehended  those  legal  washings 
or  purifications  which  are  necessary  preparations  thereto. 

For  the  regular  performance  of  the  duty  of  prayer 
among  the  Mahometans,  it  is  requisite,  while  they  pray, 
to  turn  their  faces  towards  the  temple  of  Mecca;  the 
quarter  where  the  same  is  situated  being,  for  that  reason, 
pointed  out  within  their  mosques  by  a  niche,  which  they 
call  al  Mehrab  ;  and  without,  by  the  situation  of  the  doors 
opening  into  the  galleries  of  the  steeples ;  there  are  also 
tables  calculated  for  the  ready  finding  out  their  Keblah, 
or  part  towards  which  they  ought  to  pray,  in  places  where 
they  have  no  other  direction. 

2.  Alms  are  of  two   sorts,  legal  and  voluntary.     The 
legal  alms  are  of  indispensable  obligation,  being  commanded 
by  the  law,  which  directs  and  determines  both  the  portion 
which  is  to  be  given,  and  of  what  things  it  ought  to  consist ; 
but  the  voluntary  alms  are  left  to  every  one's  liberality,  to 
give  more  or  less  as  he  shall  see  fit.     The  former  kind  of 
alms  some  think  to  be  properly  called  zacat,  and  the  latter, 
sadakat,  though  this  name  be  also  frequently  given  to  the 
legal  alms.     They  are  called  zacat,  either  because  they 
increase  a  man's  store  by  drawing  down  a  blessing  thereon, 
and  produce  in  his  soul  the  virtue  of  liberality ;  or  because 
they  purify  the  remaining  part  of  one's  substance  from 
pollution,  and   the   soul   from  the  filth  of  avarice ;    and 
eadakat,  because  they  are  a  proof  of  a  man's  sincerity  in 
the  worship  of  God.     Some  writers  have  called  the  legal 
alms  tithes;  but  improperly,  since  in  some  cases  they  fall 
short,  and  in  others  exceed  that  proportion. 

3.  Fasting  is  a  duty  of  so  great  moment,  that  Mahomet 
used  to  say  it  was  the  gate  of  religion,  and  that  the  odor 
of  the  mouth  of  him  who  fasteth  is  more  grateful  to  Grod 
than  that  of  musk;  and  Al  Ghazali  reckons  fasting  one 


MAHOMETANISM. 

fourth  part  of  the  faith.  According  to  the  Mahometan 
divines,  there  are  three  degrees  of  fasting:  1.  The  re- 
straining the  belly  and  other  parts  of  the  body  from  satis- 
fying their  lusts.  2.  The  restraining  the  ears,  eyes, 
tongue,  hands,  feet,  and  other  members  from  sin.  3.  The 
fasting  of  the  heart  from  worldly  cares,  and  restraining 
the  thought  from  everything  besides  God. 

4.  The  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  is  so  necessary  a  point  of 
practice,  that  according  to  a  tradition  of  Mahomet,  he  who 
dies  without  performing  it,  may  as  well  die  a  Jew  or  a 
Christian ;  and  the  same  is  expressly  commanded  in  the 
Koran. 

III.  Causes  of  the  success  of  Mahometanism.  —  The 
rapid  success  which  attended  the  propagation  of  this  new 
religion  was  owing  to  causes  that  are  plain  and  evident, 
and  must  remove,  or  rather  prevent  our  surprise,  when  they 
are  attentively  considered.  The  terror  of  Mahomet's 
arms,  and  the  repeated  victories  which  were  gained  by  him 
and  his  successors,  were,  no  doubt,  the  irresistible  argu- 
ments that  persuaded  such  multitudes  to  embrace  his  reli- 
gion, and  submit  to  his  dominion.  Besides,  his  law  was 
artfully  and  marvellously  adapted  to  the  corrupt  nature  of 
man ;  and,  in  a  most  particular  manner,  to  the  manners 
and  opinions  of  the  Eastern  nations,  and  the  vices  to 
which  they  were  naturally  addicted ;  for  the  articles  of 
faith  which  it  proposed  were  few  in  number,  and  extremely 
simple ;  and  the  duties  it  required  were  neither  many  nor 
difficult,  nor  such  as  were  incompatible  with  the  empire  of 
appetites  and  passions.  It  is  to  be  observed  farther,  that 
the  gross  ignorance  under  which  the  Arabians,  Syrians, 
Persians,  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  Eastern  nations, 
labored  at  this  time,  rendered  many  an  easy  prey  to  the 
artifice  and  eloquence  of  this  bold  adventurer.  To  these 
causes  of  the  progress  of  Mahometanism,  we  may  add  thtf 


310  MAHOMETANISM. 

bitter  dissensions  and  cruel  animosities  that  reigned  among 
the  Christian  sects,  particularly  the  Greeks,  Nestorians, 
Eutychians,  and  Monophysites ;  dissensions  that  filled  a 
great  part  of  the  East  with  carnage,  assassinations,  and 
such  detestable  enormities,  as  rendered  the  very  name  of 
Christianity  odious  to  many.  We  might  add  here,  that 
the  Monophysites  and  Nestorians,  full  of  resentment 
against  the  Greeks,  from  whom  they  had  suffered  the  bit- 
terest arid  most  injurious  treatment,  assisted  the  Arabian3 
in  the  conquest  of  several  provinces,  into  which,  of  conse- 
quence, the  religion  of  Mahomet  was  afterwards  intro- 
duced. Other  causes  of  the  sudden  progress  of  that  reli- 
gion will  naturally  occur  to  such  as  consider  attentively 
its  spirit  and  genius,  and  the  state  of  the  world  at  this 
time. 

IV.  Subversion  of  MaJiometanism.  —  Of  things  yet  to 
come  it  is  difficult  to  say  anything  with  precision.  We 
have,  however,  some  reason  to  believe,  from  the  aspect  of 
Scripture  prophecy,  that,  triumphant  as  this  sect  has  been, 
it  shall  at  last  come  to  nought.  As  it  arose  as  a  scourge 
to  Christendom  about  the  time  that  Antichrist  obtained  a 
temporal  dominion,  so  it  is  not  improbable  but  they  will 
have  their  downfall  nearly  at  the  same  period.  The  ninth 
chapter  of  Revelations  seems  to  refer  wholly  to  this  impos- 
ture ;  "the  four  angels  were  loosed,"  says  the  prediction, 
15th  verse,  "  which  were  prepared  for  an  hour,  and  a  day, 
and  a  month,  and  a  year,  for  to  slay  the  third  part  of 
men."  This  period,  in  the  language  of  prophecy,  makes 
391  years,  which  being  added  to  the  year  when  the  four 
angels  were  loosed,  will  bring  us  down  to  1844,  or  there- 
abouts, for  the  final  destruction  of  the  Mahometan  empire. 
It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  though  the  event  ia 
certain,  the  exact  time  cannot  be  easily  ascertained. 


JEWS.  311 


JEWS, 

THE  name  Jews  is  a  name  derived  from  the  patriarch 
Judah,  and  given  to  the  descendants  of  Abraham  by  his 
grandson  Jacob.  We  shall  here  present  the  reader  with 
as  comprehensive  a  view  of  this  singular  people  as  we  can. 

1.  History  of  the  Jews. — The  Almighty  promised  Abra- 
ham that  he  would  render  his  seed  extremely  numerous : 
this  promise  began  to  be  fulfilled  in  Jacob's  twelve  sons. 
In  about  two  hundred  and  fifteen  years  they  increased  in 
Egypt  from  seventy  to  between  two  and  three  millions, 
men,  women,  and  children.  While  Joseph  lived,  they  were 
kindly  used  by  the  Egyptian  monarchs ;  but  soon  aftor, 
from  a  suspicion  that  they  would  become  too  strong  for  the 
natives,  they  were  condemned  to  slavery;  but  the  more 
they  were  oppressed,  the  more  they  grew.  The  midwives 
and  others  were  therefore  ordered  to  murder  every  male 
infant  at  the  time  of  its  birth;  but  they  shirking  the  horri- 
ble task,  everybody  was  then  ordered  to  destroy  the  male 
children  wherever  they  found  them. 

After  they  had  been  thus  oppressed  for  about  one  hun- 
dred years,  and  on  the  very  day  that  finished  the  four 
hundred  and  thirtieth  year  from  God's  first  promise  of  a 
seed  to  Abraham,  and  about  four  hundred  years  after  the 
birth  of  Isaac,  God,  by  terrible  plagues  on  the  Egyptians, 
obliged  them  to  liberate  the  Hebrews  under  the  direction 
af  Moses  and  Aaron.  Pharaoh  pursued  them  with  a 
mighty  army ;  but  the  Lord  opened  a  passage  for  them 
through  the  Red  Sea ;  and  the  Egyptians,  in  attempting 
to  follow  them,  were  drowned.  After  this,  we  find  them 
in  a  dry  and  barren  desert,  without  any  provision  for  their 


312 


J  EWS. 


journey ;  but  God  supplied  them  with  water  from  a  rock, 
and  manna  and  quails  from  heaven.  A  little  after  they 
routed  the  Amalekites,  who  fell  on  their  rear.  In  the 
wilderness  God  delivered  them  the  law,  and  confirmed  the 
authority  of  Moses.  Three  thousand  of  them  were  cut 
off  for  worshipping  the  golden  calf;  and  for  loathing  the 
manna,  they  were  punished  with  a  month's  eating  of  flesh, 
till  a  plague  broke  out  among  them ;  and  for  their  rash 
belief  of  the  ten  wicked  spies,  and  the  contempt  of  the 
promised  land,  God  had  entirely  destroyed  them,  had  not 
Moses'  prayers  prevented.  They  were  condemned,  how- 
ever, to  wander  in  the  desert  till  the  end  of  forty  years, 
till  that  whole  generation,  except  Caleb  and  Joshua,  should 
be  cut  off  by  death.  Here  they  were  often  punished  for 
their  rebellion,  idolatry,  whoredom,  &c.  God's  marvellous 
favors,  however,  were  still  continued  in  conducting  and 
supplying  them  with  meat ;  and  the  streams  issuing  from 
the  rock  of  Meribah  followed  their  camp  about  thirty -nine 
years,  and  their  clothes  never  waxed  old. 

On  their  entrance  into  Canaan,  God  ordered  them  to 
cut  off  every  idolatrous  Canaanite ;  but  they  spared  vast 
numbers  of  them,  who  enticed  them  to  wickedness,  and 
were  sometimes  God's  rod  to  punish  them.  For  many  ages 
they  had  enjoyed  little  prosperity,  and  often  relapsed  into 
awful  idolatry,  worshipping  Baalim  and  Ashtaroth.  Micah 
and  the  Danites  introduced  it  not  long  after  Joshua's 
death.  About  this  time  the  lewdness  of  the  men  of  Gibeafl 
occasioned  a  war  of  the  eleven  tribes  against  their  brethren 
of  Benjamin  ;  they  were  twice  routed  by  the  Benjamites, 
and  forty  thousand  of  them  were  slain.  In  the  third, 
however,  all  the  Benjamites  were  slain,  except  six  hundred. 
Vexed  for  the  loss  of  a  tribe,  the  other  Hebrews  provided 
wives  for  these  six  hundred,  at  the  expense  of  slaying  most 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Jabesh  Gilead. 


JEWS.  313 

Their  relapses  into  idolatry  also  brought  on  them  re- 
peated turns  of  slavery  from  the  heathen  among  or  around 
them.  See  books  of  Judges  and  Samuel.  Having  boen 
governed  by  judges  for  about  three  hundred  and  forty 
years  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  they  took  a  fancy  to  have 
o  king.  Saul  was  their  first  sovereign,  under  whose  reign 
they  had  perpetual  struggles  with  the  Ammonites,  Moab- 
ites,  and  Philistines.  After  about  seven  years'  struggling 
between  the  eleven  tribes  that  clave  to  Ishbosheth,  the  son 
of  Saul,  and  the  tribe  of  Judah,  who  erected  themselves 
into  a  kingdom  under  David,  David  became  sole  monarch. 
Under  him  they  subdued  their  neighbors,  the  Philistines, 
Edomites,  and  others ;  and  took  possession  of  the  whole 
dominion  which  had  been  promised  them,  from  the  border 
of  Egypt  to  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  Under  Solomon 
they  had  little  war ;  when  he  died,  ten  of  the  Hebrew 
tribes  formed  a  kingdom  of  Israel,  or  Ephraim,  for  them- 
selves, under  Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Nebat,  in  opposition  to 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  ruled  by  the  family 
of  David.  The  kingdom  of  Israel,  Ephraim,  or  the  ten 
tribes,  had  never  so  much  as  one  pious  king ;  idolatry  was 
always  their  established  religion.  The  kingdom  of  Judah 
had  pious  and  wicked  sovereigns  by  turns,  though  they 
often  relapsed  into  idolatry,  which  brought  great  distress 
upon  them.  See  books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles. 
Not  only  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  but  that  of  Judah,  was 
brought  to  the  very  brink  of  ruin  after  the  death  of  Jeho- 
shaphat. 

After  various  changes,  sometimes  for  the  better  and 
sometimes  for  the  worse,  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was  ruined 
two  hundred  and  fifty  four  years  after  its  erection,  by  So, 
king  of  Egypt,  and  Halmanaser,  king  of  Assyria,  who  in- 
vaded it,  and  destroyed  most  of  the  people.  Judah  was 
invaded  by  Sennacherib ;  but  Hezekiah's  piety  and  Isaiah'a 

87 


314 

prayer  were  the  means  of  their  preservation ;  but  under 
Manasseh,  the  Jews  abandoned  themselves  to  horrid  im- 
Diety;  for  which  they  were  punished  by  Esarhaddon,  king 
,f  Assyria,  who  invaded  and  reduced  the  kingdom,  and 
Carried  Manasseh  prisoner  to  Babylon.  Manasseh  re- 
pented, and  the  Lord  brought  him  back  to  his  kingdom, 
where  he  promoted  the  reformation ;  but  his  son  Amon 
defaced  all.  Josiah,  however,  again  promoted  it,  and  car- 
ried it  to  a  higher  pitch  than  in  the  reigns  of  David  and 
Solomon.  After  Josiah  was  slain  by  Pharaoh  Necho,  king 
of  Egypt,  the  people  returned  to  idolatry,  and  God  gavr 
them  up  to  servitude  to  the  Egyptians  and  Chaldeans- 
The  fate  of  their  kings,  Jehoas,  Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin, 
and  Zedekiah,  was  unhappy.  Provoked  by  Zedekiah'a 
treachery,  Nebuchadnezzar  invaded  the  kingdom,  murdered 
vast  numbers,  and  reduced  them  to  captivity. 

Thus  the  kingdom  of  Judah  was  ruined,  A.  M.  341G, 
about  three  hundred  and  eighty-eight  years  after  its  divi- 
sion from  that  of  the  ten  tribes.  In  the  seventieth  year 
from  the  begun  captivity,  the  Jews,  according  to  the  edict 
of  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  who  had  overturned  the  empire 
of  Chaldea,  returned  to  their  own  country.  See  Nehemiah, 
Ezra.  Vast  numbers  of  them,  who  had  agreeable  settle- 
ments, remained  in  Babylon.  After  their  return  they 
rebuilt  the  temple  and  city  of  Jerusalem,  put  away  their 
strange  wives,  and  renewed  their  covenant  with  God. 

About  3490,  or  3546,  they  escaped  the  ruin  designed 
them  by  Haman.  About  3653,  Darius  Ochus,  king  of 
Persia,  ravaged  part  of  Judea,  and  carried  off  a  great 
many  prisoners.  When  Alexander  was  in  Canaan,  about 
3670,  he  confirmed  to  them  all  their  privileges  ;  and  having 
built  Alexandria,  he  settled  vast  numbers  of  them  there. 
About  fourteen  years  after,  Ptolemy  Lagus,  the  Greek 
king  of  Egypt,  ravaged  Judea,  and  carried  one  hundred 


JEWS.  315 

thousand  prisoners  to  Egypt,  but  used  them  kindly,  and 
assigned  them  many  places  of  trust.  About  eight  years 
after,  he  transported  another  multitude  of  Jews  to  Egypt, 
and  gave  them  considerable  privileges.  About  the  same 
time,  Seleucus  Nicator,  having  built  about  thirty  new 
cities  in  Asia,  settled  in  them  as  many  Jews  as  he  could : 
and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  of  Egypt,  about  3720,  bought 
the  freedom  of  all  the  Jew  slaves  in  Egypt.  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  about  3834,  enraged  with  them  for  rejoicing 
at  the  report  of  his  death,  and  for  the  peculiar  f  >rm  of 
their  worship,  in  his  return  from  Egypt,  forced  his  way 
into  Jerusalem,  and  murdered  forty  thousand  of  them ; 
and  about  two  years  after  he  ordered  his  troops  to  pillage 
the  cities  of  Judea,  and  murder  the  men,  and  sell  the 
women  and  children  for  slaves.  Multitudes  were  killed, 
and  ten  thousand  prisoners  carried  off;  the  temple  was 
dedicated  to  Olympius,  an  idol  of  Greece,  and  the  Jews 
exposed  to  the  basest  treatment.  Mattathias,  the  priest, 
with  his  sons,  chiefly  Judas,  Jonathan,  and  Simon,  who 
were  called  Maccabees,  bravely  fought  for  their  religion 
and  liberties.  Judas,  who  succeeded  his  father  about 
3840,  gave  Nicanor  and  the  king's  troops  a  terrible  defeat, 
regained  the  temple  and  dedicated  it  anew,  restored  the 
daily  worship,  and  repaired  Jerusalem,  which  was  almost 
in  a  ruinous  heap.  After  his  death,  Jonathan  and  Simon, 
his  brethren,  successively  succeeded  him ;  and  both  wisely 
and  bravely  promoted  the  welfare  of  the  Church  and 
State.  Simon  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hircanus,  who 
subdued  Idumea  and  reduced  the  Samaritans.  In  3899 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jamieus,  who  reduced  the 
Philistines,  the  country  of  Moab,  Ammon,  Gilead,  and 
part  of  Arabia.  Under  these  three  reigns  alone  the  Jewish 
nation  was  independent  after  the  captivity.  After  the 
death  of  the  widow  of  Janneus,  who  governed  nme>  years, 


316  JEWS. 

the  nation  was  almost  ruined  by  civil  broils.  In  3939, 
Aristobulus  invited  the  Romans  to  assist  him  against  Hir- 
canus,  his  elder  brother.  The  country  was  quickly  re- 
duced, and  Jerusalem  taken  by  force ;  and  Pompey  and  a 
number  of  his  officers,  pushed  their  way  into  the  sanc- 
tuary, if  not  into  the  Holy  of  Holies,  to  view  the  furniture 
thereof.  Nine  years  after,  Grasses,  the  Roman  general, 
pillaged  the  temple  of  its  valuables.  After  Judea  had  for 
more  than  thirty  years  been  a  scene  of  ravage  and  blood, 
and  twenty-four  of  which  had  been  oppressed  by  Herod 
the  Great,  Herod  got  himself  installed  in  the  kingdom. 
About  twenty  years  before  our  Saviour's  birth,  he,  with 
the  Jew's  consent,  began  to  build  the  temple.  About  this 
time  the  Jews  had  hopes  of  the  Messiah ;  and  about  A.  M. 
4000,  Christ  actually  came,  whom  Herod  (instigated  by 
the  fear  of  losing  his  throne)  sought  to  murder.  The 
Jews,  however,  a  few  excepted,  rejected  the  Messiah,  and 
put  him  to  death.  The  sceptre  was  now  wholly  departed 
from  Judah  ;  and  Judea,  about  twenty-seven  years  before, 
reduced  to  a  province.  The  Jews,  since  that  time,  have 
been  scattered,  contemned,  persecuted,  and  enslaved 
among  all  nations,  not  mixed  with  any  in  the  common 
manner,  but  have  remained  as  a  body  distinct  by  them- 
selves. 

2.  Sentiments  of  the  Jews. — The  Jews  commonly  reckon 
but  fourteen  articles  of  their  faith.  Maimonides,  a  famous 
Jewish  rabbi,  reduced  them  to  this  number  when  he  drew 
up  their  confession  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century, 
and  it  was  generally  received.  All  the  Jews  are  obliged 
to  live  and  die  in  the  profession  of  these  thirteen  articles, 
Which  are  as  follows ;  —  1.  That  God  is  the  creator  of  all 
things;  that  He  guides  and  supports  all  creatures;  that 
He  has  done  everything ;  and  that  He  still  acts,  and  shall 
act  during  the  whole  eternity. — 2.  That  God  is  one ;  there 


JEW  S. 


317 


is  no  unity  like  his.  He  alone  hath  been,  is,  and  shall  be 
eternally  our  God.  —  3.  That  God  is  incorporeal,  and  can- 
not have  any  material  properties ;  and  no  corporeal  es- 
sence can  be  compared  with  him.  —  4.  That  God  is  the 
beginning  and  end  of  all  things,  and  shall  eternally  sub- 
sist.—  5.  That  God  alone  ought  to  be  worshipped,  and 
none  beside  Him  is  to  be  adored.  —  6.  That  whatever  has 
been  taught  by  the  prophets  is  true.  —  7.  That  Moses  is 
the  head  and  father  of  all  contemporary  doctors,  of  those 
who  lived  before,  or  shall  live  after  him. — 8.  That  the  law 
was  given  by  Moses.  —  9.  That  the  law  shall  never  be 
altered,  and  that  God  will  give  no  other.  — 10.  That  God 
knows  all  the  thoughts  and  actions  of  men. — 11.  That  God 
will  regard  the  works  of  all  those  who  have  performed 
what  he  commands,  and  punish  those  who  have  trans- 
gressed his  laws. — 12.  That  the  Messiah  is  to  come,  though 
he  tarry  a  long  time. — 13.  That  there  shall  be  a  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead  when  God  shall  see  fit. 

The  modern  Jews  adhere  still  as  closely  to  the  Mosaic 
dispensation,  as  their  dispersed  and  despised  condition  will 
permit  them.  Their  service  consists  chiefly  in  reading  the 
law  in  their  synagogues,  together  with  a  variety  of  prayers. 
They  use  no  sacrifices  since  the  destruction  of  the  Temple. 
They  repeat  blessings  and  particular  praises  to  God,  not 
only  in  their  prayers,  but  on  all  accidental  occasions,  and 
in  almost  all  their  actions.  They  go  to  prayers  three  times 
a  day  in  their  synagogues.  Their  sermons  are  not  made 
in  Hebrew,  which  few  of  them  now  perfectly  understand, 
but  in  the  language  of  the  country  where  they  reside.  They 
are  forbidden  all  vain  swearing,  and  pronouncing  any  of  the 
names  of  God  without  necessity.  They  abstain  from  meata 
prohibited  by  the  Levitical  law ;  for  which  reason,  what- 
ever they  eat  must  be  dressed  by  Jews,  and  after  a  man- 
ner peculiar  to  themselves.  As  so  ?u  as  a  child  can  speak, 
27  • 


318  JEWS. 

they  teach  him  to  read  and  translate  the  Bihle  into  tne 
language  of  the  country  where  they  live.  In  general  they 
ohserve  the  same  ceremonies  which  were  practised  by  their 
ancestors,  in  the  celebration  of  the  passover.  They  acknow- 
ledge a  two-fold  law  of  God,  a  written  and  an  unwritten 
one ;  the  former  is  contained  in  the  Pentateuch,  or  five 
books  of  Moses  ;  the  latter,  they  pretend,  was  delivered  by 
God  to  Moses,  and  handed  down  from  him  by  oral  tradi- 
tion, and  now  to  be  received  as  of  equal  authority  with  the 
former.  They  assert  the  perpetuity  of  their  law,  together 
with  its  perfection.  They  deny  the  accomplishment  of  the 
prophecies  in  the  person  of  Christ ;  alleging  that  the  Mes- 
siah is  not  yet  come,  and  that  he  will  make  his  appearance 
with  the  greatest  worldly  pomp  and  grandeur,  subduing  all 
nations  before  him,  and  subjecting  them  to  the  house  of 
Judah.  Since  the  prophets  have  predicted  his  mean  con* 
dition  and  sufferings,  they  confidently  talk  of  two  Messiahs; 
one  Ben-Ephraim,  whom  they  grant  to  be  a  person  of  a 
mean  and  afflicted  condition  in  this  world ;  and  the  other, 
Ben-David,  who  shall  be  a  victorious  and  powerful  prince 

The  Jews  pray  for  the  souls  of  the  dead,  because  they 
suppose  there  is  a  paradise  for  the  souls  of  good  men,  where 
they  enjoy  glory  in  the  presence  of  God.  They  believe 
that  the  souls  of  the  wicked  are  tormented  in  hell  with  fire 
and  other  punishments ;  that  some  are  condemned  to  be 
punished  in  this  manner  forever,  while  others  continue  only 
for  a  limited  time ;  and  this  they  call  purgatory,  which  is 
not  different  from  hell  in  respect  of  the  place,  but  of  the 
duration.  They  suppose  no  Jew,  unless  guilty  of  heresy, 
or  certain  crimes  specified  by  the  rabbins,  shall  continue 
in  purgatory  above  a  twelvemonth;  and  that  there  are  but 
tew  who  suffer  eternal  punishment. 

Almost  all  the  modern  Jews  are  Pharisees,  and  are  as 
much  attached  to  tradition  as  their  ancestors  were ;  and 


JEWS.  315 

assert  that  whoever  rejects  the  oral  law  deserves  death. 
Hence  they  entertain  an  implacable  hatred  to  the  Caraites, 
who  adhere  to  the  text  of  Moses,  rejecting  the  rahbinistical 
interpretation. 

There  are  still  some  of  the  Sadducees  in  Africa,  and  in 
several  other  places ;  but  they  are  few  in  number :  at  least 
there  are  but  very  few  who  declare  openly  for  these  opinions. 

There  are  to  this  day  some  remains  of  the  ancient  sect 
of  the  Samaritans,  who  are  zealous  for  the  law  of  Moses, 
but  are  despised  by  the  Jews,  because  they  receive  only 
the  Pentateuch,  and  observe  different  ceremonies  from 
theirs.  They  declare  they  are  no  Sadducees,  but  acknow- 
ledge the  spirituality  and  immortality  of  the  soul.  There 
are  numbers  of  this  sect  at  Gaza,  Damascus,  Grand  Cairo, 
and  in  some  other  places  of  the  east ;  but  especially  at 
Sichem,  now  called  Naplouse,  which  is  risen  out  of  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  Samaria,  where  they  sacrificed  not 
many  years  ago,  having  a  place  for  this  purpose  on  Mount 
Gerizim. 

David  Levi,  a  learned  Jew,  who  in  179^6  published 
"  Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament," 
observes  in  that  work  that  Deism  and  infidelity  have  mad 
such  large  strides  in  the  world,  that  they  have  at  length 
reached  even  to  the  Jewish  nation ;  many  of  whom  are  at 
this  time  so  greatly  infected  with  scepticism,  by  reading 
Bolingbroke,  Hume,  Voltaire,  &c.,  that  they  scarcely  be- 
lieve in  a  revelation ;  much  less  have  they  any  hope  in  their 
future  restoration. 

3.  Calamities  of  the  Jews. — All  history  cannot  furnish 
us  with  a  parallel  to  the  calamities  and  miseries  of  the  Jews ; 
rapine  and  murder,  famine  and  pestilence,  within ;  fire  and 
sword,  and  all  the  terrors  of  war,  without.  Our  Saviour 
wept  at  the  foresight  of  these  calamities  ;  and  it  is  almost 
impossible  for  persons  of  any  humanity  to  read  the  account 


320 


JEWS. 


without  being  affected.  The  predictions  concerning  them 
were  remarkable,  and  the  calamities  that  came  upon  them 
were  the  greatest  the  world  ever  saw.  Deut.  xxviii.,  xxix. ; 
Matt.  xxiv.  Now,  what  heinous  sin  was  it  that  could  be 
the  cause  of  such  heavy  judgments  ?  Can  any  other  be 
assigned  than  what  the  Scripture  assigns  ?  1  Thess.  ii. 
15,  16.  "  They  both  killed  the  Lord  Jesus  and  their  own 
prophets,  and  persecuted  the  apostles:  and  so  filled  up 
their  sins,  and  wrath  came  upon  them  to  the  uttermost." 
It  is  hardly  possible  to  consider  the  nature  and  extent  of 
their  sufferings,  and  not  conclude  the  Jews'  own  impreca 
tion  to  be  singularly  fulfilled  upon  them.  Matt,  xxvii.  25. 
11  His  blood  be  on  us  and  our  children."  At  Cesarea  twenty 
thousand  of  the  Jews  were  killed  by  the  Syrians  in  their 
mutual  broils.  At  Damascus  ten  thousand  unarmed  Jews 
were  killed;  and  at  Bethshan  the  heathen  inhabitants 
caused  their  Jewish  neighbors  to  assist  them  against  their 
brethren,  and  then  murdered  thirty  thousand  of  these  in 
habitants.  At  Alexandria  the  Jews  murdered  multitudes 
of  the  heathens,  and  were  murdered  in  their  turn  to  about 
fifty  thousand.  The  Romans  under  Vespasian  invaded  the 
country,  and  took  the  cities  of  Galilee,  Chorazen,  Beth- 
Baida,  Capernaum,  &c.,  where  Christ  had  been  especially 
rejected,  and  murdered  numbers  of  the  inhabitants.  At 
Jerusalem  the  scene  was  most  wretched  of  all.  At  the 
passover,  when  there  might  be  two  or  three  millions  of 
people  in  the  city,  the  Romans  surrounded  it  with  troops, 
trenches,  and  walls,  that  none  might  escape.  The  three 
different  factions  within  murdered  one  another.  Titus,  one 
of  the  most  merciful  generals  that  ever  breathed,  did  all  in 
his  power  to  persuade  them  to  an  advantageous  surrender, 
but  they  scorned  every  proposal.  The  multitudes  of  un- 
buried  carcases  corrupted  the  air,  and  produced  a  pesti- 
lence. The  people  fed  on  one  another ;  and  even  ladies, 


JEWS.  221 

it  is  said,  broiled  their  sucking  infants,  and  ate  them. 
After  a  siege  of  six  months,  the  city  was  taken.  They 
murdered  almost  every  Jew  they  met  with.  Titus  was  bent 
to  save  the  Temple,  but  could  not :  there  were  six  thousand 
Jews  who  had  taken  shelter  in  it,  all  burnt  or  murdered ! 
The  outcries  of  the  Jews,  when  they  saw  it,  were  most 
dreadful :  the  whole  city,  except  three  towers  and  a  small 
part  of  the  wall,  were  razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  foun- 
dations of  the  temple  and  other  places  were  ploughed  up. 
Soon  after  the  forts  of  Herodian  and  Macheron  were  taken, 
the  garrison  of  Massada  murdered  themselves  rather  than 
surrender.  At  Jerusalem  alone,  it  is  said,  one  million  one 
hundred  thousand  perished  by  sword,  famine,  and  pesti- 
lence. In  other  places  we  hear  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  that  were  cut  off,  besides  vast  numbers  sent  to 
Egypt  to  labor  as  slaves.  About  fifty  years  after,  the  Jews 
murdered  about  five  hundred  thousand  of  the  Roman  sub- 
jects, for  which  they  were  severely  punished  by  Trajan. 
About  130,  one  Barocaba  pretended  that  he  was  the  Mes- 
siah, and  raised  a  Jewish  army  of  two  hundred  thousand, 
who  murdered  all  the  heathens  and  Christians  who  came 
in  their  way ;  but  he  was  defeated  by  Adrian's  forces.  In 
this  war,  it  is  said,  about  sixty  thousand  Jews  were  slain 
and  perished.  Adrian  built  a  city  on  Mount  Calvary,  and 
erected  a  marble  statue  of  swine  over  the  gate  that  led  to 
Bethlehem.  No  Jew  was  allowed  to  enter  the  city,  or  to 
look  to  it  at  a  distance,  under  pain  of  death.  In  360,  they 
began  to  rebuild  their  city  and  temple  ;  but  a  terrible  earth- 
quake and  flames  of  fire  issuing  from  the  earth,  killed  the 
workmen,  and  scattered  their  materials.  Nor  till  the 
seventh  century  durst  they  so  much  as  creep  over  the  rub- 
bish to  bewail  it,  without  bribing  the  guards.  In  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  centuries,  there  were  many  of  them  furi- 
ously harassed  and  murdered.  In  the  sixth  century,  twenty 


JEWS. 

thousand  of  them  were  slain,  and  as  many  taken  and  sold 
for  slaves.  In  602,  they  were  severely  punished  for  thei'j 
\orrible  massacre  of  the  Christians  at  Antioch.  In  Spain, 
in  700,  they  were  ordered  to  be  enslaved.  In  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centuries,  they  were  greatly  derided  and  abused : 
in  some  places  they  were  made  to  wear  leathern  girdles, 
and  ride  without  stirrups  on  asses  and  mules.  In  France 
and  Spain  they  were  much  insulted.  In  the  tenth,  eleventh, 
and  twelfth  centuries,  their  miseries  rather  increased :  they 
were  greatly  persecuted  in  Egypt.  Besides  what  they  suf- 
fered in  the  East  by  the  Turkish,  and  sacred  war,  it  is 
shocking  to  think  what  multitudes  of  them  the  eight  cru- 
sades murdered  in  Germany,  Hungary,  Lesser  Asia,  and 
elsewhere.  In  France,  multitudes  were  burnt.  In  Eng- 
land, in  1020,  they  were  banished ;  and  at  the  coronation 
of  Richard  I.  the  mob  fell  upon  them,  and  murdered  a  great 
many  of  them.  About  one  thousand  and  five  hundred  of 
them  were  burnt  in  the  palace  in  the  city  of  York,  which 
they  set  fire  to  themselves,  after  killing  their  wives  and 
children.  In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  their 
condition  was  no  better.  In  Egypt,  Canaan,  and  Syria, 
the  crusaders  still  harassed  them.  Provoked  with  their 
mad  running  after  pretended  Messiahs,  Caliph  Nasset 
scarce  left  any  of  them  alive  in  his  dominions  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. In  Persia,  the  Tartars  murdered  them  in  multi- 
tudes. In  Spain,  Ferdinand  persecuted  them  furiously. 
About  1349,  the  terrible  massacre  of  them  at  Toledo  forced 
many  of  them  to  murder  themselves,  or  change  their  reli- 
gion. About  1253,  many  were  murdered,  and  others  ban- 
ished from  France,  but  in  1275  recalled.  In  1320  and 
1330,  the  crusades  of  the  fanatic  shepherds,  who  wasted 
the  south  of  France,  massacred  them  ;  besides  fifteen  hun- 
dred that  were  murdered  on  another  occasion.  In  1358, 
they  were  totally  banished  from  France,  since  which  few 


JEWS.  323 

of  them  have  entered  that  country.  In  1291,  king  EdwarJ 
expelled  them  from  England,  to  the  number  of  one  hundred 
and  sixty  thousand.  In  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seven- 
teenth centuries,  their  miseries  continued.  In  Persia  they 
have  been  terribly  used :  from  1663  to  1666,  the  murder 
of  them  was  so  universal,  that  but  a  few  escaped  t<»  Turkey. 
In  Portugal  and  Spain,  they  have  been  miserably  handled. 
About  1392,  six  or  eight  hundred  thousand  were  banished 
from  Spain.  Some  were  drowned  in  their  passage  to  Africa, 
some  died  by  hard  usage,  and  many  of  their  carcasses  lay  in 
the  fields  till  the  wild  beasts  devoured  them.  In  Germany 
they  have  endured  many  hardships.  They  have  been  ban- 
ished from  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Cologne,  Nuremberg,  Augs- 
burgh,  and  Vienna :  they  have  been  terribly  massacred  in 
Moravia,  and  plundered  in  Bonn  and  Bamberg.  Except 
in  Portugal  and  Spain,  their  present  condition  is  generally 
tolerable.  In  Holland,  Poland,  and  at  Frankfort  and  Ham- 
burgh, they  have  their  liberty.  They  have  repeatedly,  but 
till  lately  in  vain,  attempted  to  obtain  a  naturalization  irx 
England,  and  other  nations  among  whom  they  are  scattered 
4.  Preservation  of  the  Jews. — "  The  preservation  of  the 
Jews,"  says  Basnage,  "in  the  midst  of  the  miseries  which 
they  have  undergone  during  1700  years,  is  the  greatest 
prodigy  that  can  be  imagined.  Religions  depend  on  tem- 
poral prosperity ;  they  triumph  under  the  protection  of  a 
conqueror :  they  languish  and  sink  with  sinking  monarchies. 
Paganism,  which  once  covered  the  earth,  is  extinct.  The 
Christian  church,  glorious  in  its  martyrs,  yet  was  considera- 
bly diminished  by  the  persecutions  to  which  it  was  exposed ; 
nor  was  it  easy  to  repair  the  breaches  in  it  made  by  those 
acts  of  violence.  But  here  we  behold  a  church  hated  and  per- 
secuted for  1700  years,  and  yet  sustaining  itself,  and  widely 
extended.  Kings  have  often  employed  the  severity  of  edicts 
and  the  hand  of  executioners  to  ruin  it.  The  seditious  mul- 


324 


JEWS 


titudes,  by  murders  and  massacres,  have  committed  out- 
rages against  it  still  more  violent  and  tragical.  Princes 
and  people,  Pagans,  Mahometans,  Christians,  disagreeing 
in  so  many  things,  have  united  in  the  design  of  extermi- 
nating it,  and  have  not  been  able  to  succeed.  The  bush 
of  Moses,  surrounded  with  flames,  ever  burns,  and  is  never 
consumed.  The  Jews  have  been  expelled,  in  different  times, 
from  every  part  of  the  world,  which  hath  only  served  to 
spread  them  in  all  regions.  From  age  to  age  they  have 
been  exposed  to  misery  and  persecution;  yet  still  they 
subsist,  in  spite  of  the  ignominy  and  the  hatred  which  hath 
pursued  them  in  all  places,  whilst  the  greatest  monarchies 
are  fallen,  and  nothing  remains  of  them  besides  the  name. 

"  The  judgments  which  God  has  exercised  upon  this 
people  are  terrible,  extending  to  the  men,  the  religion,  and 
the  very  land  in  which  they  dwelt.  The  ceremonies  essen- 
tial to  their  religion  can  no  more  be  observed ;  the  ritual 
law,  which  cast  a  splendor  on  the  national  worship,  and 
struck  the  pagans  so  much  that  they  sent  their  presents 
and  their  victims  to  Jerusalem,  is  absolutely  fallen,  for 
they  have  no  temple,  no  altar,  no  sacrifices.  Their  land 
itself  seems  to  lie  under  a  never-ceasing  curse.  Pagans, 
Christians,  Mohammedans,  in  a  word,  almost  all  nations, 
have  by  turns  seized  and  held  Jerusalem.  To  the  Jew 
only  hath  God  refused  the  possession  of  this  small  tract 
of  ground,  so  supremely  necessary  for  him,  since  he  ought 
to  worship  on  this  mountain.  A  Jewish  writer  hath  af- 
firmed that  it  is  long  since  any  Jew  has  been  seen  settled 
near  Jerusalem ;  scarcely  can  they  purchase  there  six  feet 
of  land  for  a  burying-place. 

**  In  all  this  there  is  no  exaggeration :  I  am  only  point- 
ing out  known  facts  ;  and,  far  from  having  the  least  design 
to  raise  an  odium  against  the  nation  from  its  miseries,  I 
conclude  that  it  ought  to  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  those 


JEWS.  325 

prodigies  which  we  admire  without  comprehending  ;  since> 
in  spite  of  evils  sc  durable,  and  a  patience  so  long  exer- 
cised, it  is  preserved  by  a  particular  providence.  The 
Jew  ought  to  be  weary  of  expecting  a  Messiah  who  so 
unkindly  disappoints  his  vain  hopes ;  and  the  Christian 
ought  to  have  his  attention  and  his  regard  excited  towards 
men  whom  God  preserves,  for  so  great  a  length  of  time, 
under  calamities  which  would  have  been  the  total  ruin  of 
any  other  people." 

5.  Number  and  Dispersion  of  the  Jews. — They  are  looked 
upon  to  be  as  numerous  at  present  as  they  were  formerly 
in  the  land  of  Canaan.  Some  have  rated  them  at  three 
millions,  and  others  more  than  double  that  number.  Their 
dispersion  is  a  remarkable  particular  in  this  people.  They 
swarm  all  over  the  east,  and  are  settled,  it  is  said,  in  the 
remotest  parts  of  China.  The  Turkish  empire  abounds 
with  them.  There  are  more  of  them  at  Constantinople 
and  Salonichi  than  in  any  other  place.  They  are  spread 
through  most  of  the  nations  of  Europe  and  Africa,  and 
many  families  of  them  are  established  in  the  West  Indies ; 
not  to  mention  whole  nations  bordering  on  Prester  John's 
country,  and  some  discovered  in  the  inner  parts  of  Ame- 
rica, if  we  may  give  any  credit  to  their  own  writers. 
Their  being  always  in  rebellions  (as  Addison  observes) 
while  they  had  the  Holy  Temple  in  view,  has  excited  most 
nations  to  banish  them.  Besides,  the  whole  people  are 
now  a  race  of  such  merchants  as  are  wanderers  by  profes- 
sion ;  and  at  the  same  time  are  in  most,  if  not  in  all 
places,  incapable  of  holding  either  lands  or  offices,  that 
might  engage  them  to  make  any  part  of  the  world  their 
home.  In  addition  to  this,  we  may  consider  what  provi- 
dential reasons  may  be  assigned  for  their  numbers  and 
dispersion.  Their  firm  adherence  to  their  religion,  and 
being  dispersed  all  over  the  earth,  has  furnished  every  age 

28 


326  JEWS. 

arid  every  nation  with  the  strongest  arguments  for  the 
Christian  faith ;  not  only  as  these  very  particulars  are 
foretold  of  them,  but  as  they  themselves  are  the  deposita- 
ries of  these  and  all  other  prophecies  which  tend  to  their 
own  confusion  and  the  establishment  of  Christianity. 
Their  number  furnishes  us  with  a  sufficient  cloud  of  wit- 
nesses that  attest  the  truth  of  the  Bible,  and  their  disper- 
sion spreads  these  witnesses  through  all  parts  of  the  world. 
6.  Restoration  of  Jews.  —  From  the  declarations  of 
Scripture,  we  have  reason  to  suppose  the  Jews  shall  be 
called  to  a  participation  of  the  blessings  of  the  gospel 
(Rom.  xi. ;  2  Cor.  iii.  16;  Hos.  i.  11);  and  some  suppose 
shall  return  to  their  own  land  (Hos.  iii.  5 ;  Is.  Ixv.  17, 
etc. ;  Ezek.  xxxvi).  As  to  the  time,  some  think  about 
1866  or  2016  j  but  this,  perhaps,  is  not  so  easy  to  deter- 
mine altogether,  though  it  is  probable  it  will  not  be  before 
the  fall  of  Antichrist  and  the  Ottoman  empire.  Let  us, 
however,  avoid  putting  stumbling-blocks  in  their  way.  If 
we  attempt  anything  for  their  conversion,  let  it  be  with 
peace  and  love.  Let  us,  says  one,  propose  Christianity  to 
them,  as  Christ  proposed  it  to  them.  Let  us  lay  before 
them  their  own  prophecies.  Let  us  show  them  their  ac- 
complishment in  Jesus.  Let  us  applaud  their  hatred  of 
idolatry.  Let  us  show  them  the  morality  of  Jesus  in  our 
lives  and  tempers.  Let  us  never  abridge  their  civil  liberty, 
nor  ever  try  to  force  their  consciences. 


UNITED     BRETHREN     IN     CHRIST.  327 

UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST. 

THIS  large  and  respectable  society  is  frequently  mis- 
taken for  the  Moravians,  but  is  entirely  distinct  from 
them,  being  founded,  near  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  by  REV.  WM.  OTTERBEIN,  a  learned  minister 
of  the  German  Reformed  Church.  Mr.  Otterbein  was 
born  in  Germany,  but  came  to  this  country  in  1752. 
Not  long  afterward,  impressed  by  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures with  the  need  of  the  New  Birth,  taught  by  Christ 
as  the  source  of  all  spiritual  life,  he  first  sought  that 
blessing  for  himself;  and,  having  'found  it,  began  earn- 
estly to  enforce  its  necessity  upon  others,  however  familiar 
they  might  be,  as  he  had  been,  with  the  religion  of  forms 
and  education.  Numbers  of  professing  Christians  were 
soon  roused  from  apathy  and  false  security,  to  an  active 
interest  in  spiritual  things.  Meetings  were  appointed  on 
week  evenings,  not  only  for  preaching,  but  for  prayer 
and  religious  conversation — things  common  now,  but 
then  counted  "strange  things,"  among  his  denomination. 
Otterbein  also  adopted  and  spread  the  new  idea  that  all 
true  Christians,  of  whatever  name,  should  unite  at  the 
Lord's  table.  For  these  innovations  on  established  order, 
the  Synod  called  him  to  account,  tried  him,  and  though  it 
never  formally  excommunicated  him,  nearly  every  pulpit 
was  henceforth  closed  against  him. 

Though  sorely  pained  at  these  proceedings,  Mr.  Otter- 
bein was  not  silenced  or  dismayed.  He  resorted  to  the 
fields  and  private  houses ;  even  the  barn  was  welcome  as 
a  place  to  preach  the  Gospel.  He  travelled  extensively, 
and  success  attended  his  labors.  Many  joined  him  from 
other  denominations,  and  such  was  the  concord  between 
them,  that  they  agreed  to  take  the  name  they  now  bear, 
of  "  United  Brethren  in  Christ." 


328  UNITED     BRETHREN     IN     CHRIST. 

Mr.  Asbury,  sent  out  to  this  country  by  Mr.  Wesley  to 
form  churches,  labored  in  company  with  them  for  some 
time,  they  preaching  in  German,  and  lie  in  English. 
Hence  they  were  called  "German  Methodists,"  though 
they  preferred  an  organization  of  their  own.  Some  steps 
were  taken  to  this  end  in  1 789,  at  a  conference  held  in  Bal- 
timore, Md.,  but  nothing  effectual  was  done  until  1 800,  when 
an  organization  was  formed,  and  Otterbein  and  Martin 
Boehm  were  chosen  the  first  superintendents  or  Bishops. 

The  society  throve  rapidly,  both  in  preachers  and  people, 
though  not  as  rapidly  as  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
being  confined  for  a  number  of  years  to  the  German  popu- 
lation. Their  "  Discipline"  was  adopted  in  their  General 
Conference  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Pa.,  in  1815.  They  are 
distinguished  by  no  new  doctrines,  but  by  an  organization 
in  which  the  ministers  and  people  have,  in  the  main,  an 
equal  proportion  of  power,  and  the  rulers  hold  office  only 
by  the  authority  and  consent  of  the  governed.  In  thia 
freedom  they  are  chiefly  distinguished  from  their  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  brethren. 

Their  ecclesiastical  courts  consist,  like  theirs,  of  Quar 
terly,  Annual,  and  General  Conferences ;  and  their  officers 
of  ordained  elders,  who  alone  exercise  the  functions  of  the 
ministry ;  class  leaders ;  stewards,  who  attend  to  the  pe- 
cuniary wants  of  the  ministers ;  preacher?  in  charge,  who 
must  have  the  oversight  of  one  circuit ;  presiding  elders ; 
and  bishops,  who  have  the  general  superintendence  of 
the  whole  Church.     Their  ministry  is  earnest,  quiet,  and  . 
perseveringly  devoted  to  the  salvation  of  souls. 

They  allow,  but  do  not  enjoin,  the  washing  of  feet 
They  oppose  all  secret  societies,  intemperance,  and  slavery, 
and  are  zealous  in  supporting  Missions. 

In  1870,  they  had  40  Conferences,  3924  churches,  1634 
ministers,  and  118,055  members. 


PELAGIANS.  329 


PELAGIANS. 

PELAGIANTSM  is  that  theological  view  which  denies  the 
total  corruption  of  men,  attributed  to  the  fall  of  Adam 
(original  sin),  and  declares  man's  natural  capacity  suffi- 
cient for  the  exercise  of  Christian  duties  and  virtues,  pro- 
vided he  have  hut  an  earnest  purpose  to  do  well.  It  does 
not  exclude  faith  in  divine  assistance  towards  man's  im- 
provement, hut  believes  this  assistance  will  be  granted  to 
those  only  who  strive  to  improve  themselves.  This  view 
was  broached  by  the  English  monk  Pelagius,  who,  in  the 
fifth  century,  resided  in  Rome,  with  the  reputation  of  great 
learning  and  an  unspotted  life,  and  fled  from  that  city 
when  it  was  taken  by  the  Goths,  in  409,  with  his  friend 
Ccslestus,  to  Sicily,  and  thence  to  Africa,  where  Augus- 
tine declared  him  a  heretic ;  in  which  several  African 
Bynods  concurred.  Pelagius  travelled  to  Jerusalem,  and 
there  closed  his  life  in  tranquillity,  in  the  year  420,  at  the 
age  of  ninety  years.  The  philosophfcal  soundness  and 
noble  frankness  of  his  writings,  together  with  his  own 
great  virtue  in  a  time  of  universal  and  deep-rooted  corrup- 
tion, procured  many  adherents  to  his  opinions,  which  at  all 
times  have  been  considered,  by  some  of  the  purest  and 
most  reflecting  men,  as  the  only  ones  worthy  of  the  Deity. 
He  never  attempted  to  found  a  heretical  or  dissenting 
eect,  yet  the  Pelagians,  whose  views  were  formally  con- 
demned at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  in  431,  and  the  Semi- 
Pelagians,  founded  by  John  Cassianus  at  Marseilles  (died 
in  435),  who  somewhat  modified  the  orthodox  dogma  of  the 
utter  insufficiency  of  man's  nature  for  virtue,  occupy  a  verj 
'uiportant  place  in  ecclesiastical  history. 

28* 


330  EUTYCHIANS. 


EUTYCHIANS. 

THE  Eutychians  were  a  sect  of  Christians  which  began 
in  the  east  in  the  fifth  century.  Eutyches,  its  reputed 
founder,  though  the  opinions  attributed  to  him  are  said  to 
have  existed  before  (de  Eutychianismo  ante  Eutychen,  by 
Christ.  Aug.  Selig,  and  also  Assemani,  Bibliotheca  Orien- 
talis,  torn,  i.,  p.  219),  was  a  monk  who  lived  near  Constan- 
tinople, and  had  a  great  reputation  for  austerity  and  sanc- 
tity. He  was  already  advanced  in  years  when  he  came 
out  of  his  retirement,  A.  D.  448,  in  order  to  oppose  the 
Nestorians,  who  were  accused  of  teaching  "  that  the  divine 
nature  was  not  incarnate  in,  but  only  attendant  on,  Jesus, 
being  superadded  to  his  human  nature  after  the  latter  was 
formed;"  an  opinion,  however,  which  Nestorius  himself 
had  disavowed.  In  his  zeal  for  opposing  the  error  ascribed 
to  the  Nestorians,  Eutyches  ran  into  the  opposite  extreme 
of  saying  that  in  Christ  there  was  "  only  one  nature,  that 
of  the  incarnate  Word,"  his  human  nature  having  been 
absorbed  in  a  manner  by  his  divine  nature. 

Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Dorylaeum,  who  had  already  op- 
posed the  Nestorians,  denounced  Eutyches  before  a  council 
assembled  at  Constantinople  by  Flavianus,  bishop  of  that 
city.  That  assembly  condemned  Eutyches,  who,  being 
supported  by  friends  at  the  court  of  Theodosius  II.,  ap- 
pealed to  a  general  council,  which  was  soon  after  convoked 
by  the  emperor  at  Ephesus,  A.  D.  449,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Dioscorus,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  successor 
to  the  famous  Cyril,  who  had  himself  broached  a  doctrine 
very  similar  to  that  of  Eutyches. 

The  majority  of  the  council  tumultuouslv  acquitted  Eu- 


EUTTCHIANS.  331 

tyches,  and  condemned  Flavianus ;  the  bishops  opposed  to 
him  were  obliged  to  escape,  and  Flavianus  was  cruelly 
scourged  by  the  soldiers.  It  was,  in  short,  a  scene  of  dis- 
graceful violence,  which  earned  for  the  Council  of  Ephe- 
sus  the  name  of  "a  meeting  of  robbers." 

Flavianus  appealed  to  Leo  the  Great,  Bishop  of  Rome, 
who,  in  his  answer,  condemned  the  doctrine  of  Eutyches, 
but  could  not  obtain  of  Theodosius  the  convocation  of 
mother  council:  After  the  death  of  that  emperor,  his 
successor,  Marcianus,  convoked  a  council  at  Chalcedon, 
A.  D.  451,  which  is  reckoned  as  the  fourth  oecumenical 
council  of  the  Church,  and  which  the  Pope's  legates  at- 
tended. By  this  assembly  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Ephe- 
sus  were  annulled,  Dioscorus  was  deposed  and  banished, 
and  Eutyches,  who  had  already  been  banished  by  the  em- 
peror, was  again  condemned,  and  deprived  of  his  sacer- 
dotal office. 

The  doctrine  was  at  the  same  time  expounded  that  "  in 
Christ  two  distinct  natures  are  united  in  one  person, .and 
that  without  any  change,  mixture,  or  confusion."  Euty- 
ches died  in  exile ;  but  several  monks,  especially  in  Syria, 
continued  the  schism,  and  having  found  a  protectress  in  the 
Empress  Eudocia,  the  widow  of  Theodosius,  who  was  liv- 
ing in  Palestine,  they  became  more  daring,  and  excited 
the  people  against  the  partisans  of  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don, whom  they  stigmatized  as  Nestorians.  The  emperor 
was  obliged  to  send  troops  to  repress  these  disorders. 

The  doctrine  of  Eutyches  was  perpetuated  in  the  east 
under  certain  modifications,  or  rather  quibbling  of  words, 
which  caused  the  sect  to  be  subdivided  under  various 
names,  all,  however,  comprehended  under  the  general 
name  of  Monophysites,  or  believers  in  one  nature.  In  the 
sixth  century  a  fresh  impulse  was  given  to  the  Eutychian 
doctrine  by  one  Jacob,  a  monk,  surnained  Baradaeus,  who 


332  EUTYCHIANS. 

reconciled  the  various  divisions  of  the  Monophysitos 
throughout  the  east,  and  spread  their  tenets  through  Syria, 
Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Egypt,  found  supporters 
among  several  prelates  (among  others  in  the  Bishop  of 
Alexandria),  and  died  himself  Bishop  of  Edessa,  A.  D. 
588.  He  was  considered  as  the  second  founder  of  the 
Monophysites,  who  assumed  from  him  the  name  of  Jacob- 
ites, under  which  appellation  they  still  constitute  a  very 
n-umerous  church,  equally  separate  from  the  Greek,  the 
Roman  or  Latin,  and  the  Nestorian  churches.  The  Ar- 
menians and  the  Copts  are  Jacobites,  and  so  are  likewise 
many  Syrian  Christians  in  contradistinction  to  the  Melch- 
ites,  who  belong  to  the  Greek  Church.  Jacobite  congre- 
gations are  found  in  Mesopotamia. 

The  Monothelites  who  appeared  in  the  seventh  century 
have  been  considered  as  an  offshoot  of  the  Eutychians  or 
Monophysites,  though  they  pretended  to  be  quite  uncon- 
nected with  them.  They  admitted  the  two  natures  in 
Christ,  explaining  that  after  the  union  of  the  two  into  one 
person,  there  was  in  him  only  one  will  and  one  operation. 
This  was  an  attempt  to  conciliate  the  Monophysites  with 
the  orthodox  church,  and  it  succeeded  for  a  time.  It  was 
approved  of  by  many  eastern  prelates,  and  even  by  Pope 
Honorius  I.,  in  two  epistles  to  Sergius,  patriarch  of  Con 
stantinople,  which  are  found  in  the  Acts  of  the  Councils 
But  the  successors  of  Honorius  condemned  the  Monothe 
lites,  and  Martin  I.,  in  a  bull  of  excommunication,  A.  D. 
649,  consigned  them  and  their  patrons  (meaning  the  Em- 
peror Constans,  who  protected  them)  "  to  the  devil  and  hia 
angels."  Constans,  indignant  at  this,  caused  his  exarch 
in  Italy  to  arrest  Martin,  and  send  him  prisoner  to  the 
Chersonesus.  At  last,  under  Constantine,  who  succeeded 
Constans,  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  which  is  the 


FIFTH    MONARCHY    MEN. 

sixth  oecumenical  council,  A.  D.  680,  condemned  the  Mo- 
aothelites,  and  with  them  Pope  Honorius  himself. 


FIFTH  MONARCHY  MEN, 

A  SECT  of  religionists,  whose  distinguishing  tenet  was  a 
belief  in  the  fifth  universal  monarchy,  of  which  Jesus 
Christ  was  to  be  the  head,  while  the  saints,  under  his  per- 
sonal sovereignty,  should  possess  the  earth.  They  ap- 
peared in  England  towards  the  close  of  the  Protectorate ; 
and  in  1660,  a  few  months  after  the  Restoration,  they 
broke  out  into  a  serious  tumult  in  London  under  their 
leader  Venner,  in  which  many  of  them  lost  their  lives, 
some  being  killed  by  the  military,  and  others  afterwards 
executed.  Several  Fifth  Monarchy  Men  also  suffered 
death  in  1662,  on  a  charge  (most  probably  unfounded)  of 
having  conspired  to  kill  the  King  and  the  Duke  of  York, 
to  seize  the  Tower,  etc.  They  are  the  same  who  were 
sometimes  called  Millenarians,  their  notion  being  that  the 
reign  of  Christ  upon  earth  was  to  last  for  a  thousand 
years.  They  seem  also,  from  the  extravagance  and  vio- 
lence of  conduct  into  which  they  occasionally  broke  out, 
to  have  been  confounded,  in  the  popular  imagination,  with 
the  old  Anabaptists  of  Minister. 


FRATRICELLI. 


FRATRICELLI. 

FKATRICELLI,  or  Little  Brethren,  also  called  Fratres  3,6 
paupere  vita,  a  religious  sect  which  arose  in  Italy  towards 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  They  were  Franciscan 
monks,  who  separated  themselves  from  the  grand  commu- 
nity of  St.  Francis,  with  the  intention  of  obeying  the  laws 
of  their  founder  in  a  more  rigorous  manner  than  they 
were  observed  by  the  other  Franciscans.  They  accord- 
ingly renounced  every  kind  of  property,  both  common  and 
individual,  and  begged  from  door  to  door  their  daily  sub- 
sistence, alleging  that  neither  Christ  nor  his  Apostles  had 
any  possessions,  either  individual  or  in  common ;  and  that 
these  were  the  models  which  St.  Francis  had  commanded 
them  to  imitate.  They  went  about  clothed  in  rags,  de- 
claiming against  the  vices  of  the  Pope  and  the  bishops, 
and  foretold  the  reformation  of  the  Church  and  the  resto- 
ration of  the  true  gospel  of  Christ,  by  the  real  followers 
of  St.  Francis.  As  the  Franciscan  order  acknowledges 
for  its  companions  a  set  of  men  who  observe  the  third  rule 
prescribed  by  St.  Francis,  and  were  therefore  commonly 
called  Tertiarii ;  so  likewise  the  order  of  the  Fratricelk, 
who  were  anxious  to  be  considered  as  the  only  true  fol- 
lowers of  St.  Francis,  had  a  great  number  of  Tertiarii 
attached  to  their  cause.  These  Tertiarii,  or  half-monks, 
were  called  in  Italy  Bizoehi  or  Bocazoi,  in  France  Be- 
guins,  in  Germany  Begwards  or  Beghards.  This  last 
appellation  was  generally  applied  to  them.  The  Tertiarii 
differed  from  the  Fratricelli,  not  in  their  opinions,  but  only 
in  their  manner  of  living.  The  Fratricelli  were  real 
uaoiiks,  subject  to  the  rule  of  St.  Francis,  whilst  the  Bizo* 


FRATRICELLI. 

chi  or  Beghards,  as  well  as  the  Franciscan  Tertiarii,  ex- 
cepting their  dirty  habits,  and  certain  maxims  and  obser- 
vances which  they  followed  in  compliance  with  the  rules 
of  their  patron  saint,  lived  after  the  manner  of  other 
men,  and  were  therefore  considered  as  laymen.  The  Beg- 
hards were  divided  into  two  classes,  the  perfect  and  the 
imperfect.  The  first  lived  on  alms,  abstained  from  mar- 
riage, and  had  no  fixed  dwellings ;  the  second  had  houses, 
wives,  and  possessions,  and  were  engaged  in  the  common 
avocations  of  life  like  other  people.  Pope  Celestin  V. 
•was  favorably  disposed  to  the  Fratricelli,  arid  permitted 
them  to  constitute  themselves  into  a  separate  order.  They 
were  submissive  to  that  Pope,  but  they  violently  opposed 
his  successor,  Boniface  VIII.,  and  subsequent  Popes  who 
persecuted  their  sect.  The  Fratricelli  were  accused  of 
great  enormities,  and  persecuted  by  the  court  of  Rome ; 
but  they  found  protection  from  princes,  nobles,  and  towns, 
who  respected  them  on  account  of  the  austerity  of  their 
devotion.  The  Fratricelli  did  not  always  submit  with  the 
meekness  of  the  first  Christian  martyrs  to  their  persecu- 
tors, but  frequently  opposed  force  to  force,  and  evt-n  put 
to  death  some  inquisitors  in  Italy.  This  sect  continued 
during  the  fourteenth  century,  and  spread  as  far  as  Bohe- 
mia, Silesia,  and  Poland.  The  members  of  it  were  most 
severely  persecuted  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  many  of 
them  fled  from  France  to  England  and  Ireland.  All  the 
persecutions  directed  against  the  sect  did  not,  however, 
extinguish  it ;  and  some  remnants  of  it  existed  till  the 
Reformation  of  Luther,  whose  doctrines  they  embraced. 
Their  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  Fratri- 
cellus  or  Fraterculus,  an  Italian  nickname  which  was  ap- 
plied in  the  middle  ages  to  all  persons  who,  without  be- 
longing to  any  religious  order,  assumed  a  sanctimonious 
appearance. 


336  PIETISTS.  —  M^M  ICH^EANS. 


PIETISTS. 

PIETISTS  is  the  name  given  in  the  seventeenth  century 
to  a  kind  of  German  Methodists  or  Evangelicals,  who, 
being  members  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  were  dissatisfied 
with  the  cold  dogmatism  of  the  generality  of  its  clergy, 
and  felt  the  want  of  a  revival  of  religious  feeling  and  of 
practical  piety  and  charity.  Without  separating  them- 
selves from  the  church,  they  instituted  meetings  called 
"  Collegia  Pietatis,"  from  which  the  denomination  of  Pietists 
was  derived.  Philip  Jacob  Spener,  a  divine  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  who  was  preacher  at  Frankfort,  and 
afterwards  at  Dresden  and  Berlin,  was  the  chief  promoter 
of  these  meetings,  which  began  about  1670.  He  wrote 
several  ascetic  works,  and  died  in  1705.  A  spirit  similar 
to  that  of  the  Pietists  of  Germany  has  arisen  in  our  own 
times  in  the  Swiss  and  French  Protestant  churches,  and 
the  promoters  of  it,  after  suffering  considerable  annoyance 
from  the  less  religious  part  of  the  community,  have  suc- 
ceeded in  effecting  a  revival  of  evangelical  doctrines  and 
practice.  They  have  been  styled  in  derision  '*  Momiers" 
(from  momerie,  mummery),  a  name  which  the  great 
majority  of  them  are  far  from  deserving. 


MANICH^ANS. 

THE  Manichaeans  were  an  heretical  Christian  sect,  who 
d  rived  their  name  from  Mani,  as  he  is  called  by  the 
Persians  and  Arabians,  or  Manes  or  Manichseus,  according 
to  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers.  The  particulars  of  the 


MANICH^ANS.  337 

life  and  death  of  this  individual  are  variously  reported  by 
the  Greek  and  Oriental  writers ;  but  it  appears  from  all 
accounts  that  he  was  a  native  of  Persia,  or  at  least  brought 
up  in  that  country ;  that  he  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
doctrines  of  the  Magi ;  that  he  attempted  to  amalgamate 
the  Persian  religion  with  Christianity;  and  that  after 
meeting  with  considerable  success,  he  was  eventually  put 
to  death  by  Varanes  L,  king  of  Persia.  It  is  difficult  to 
determine  the  exact  time  at  which  the  doctrines  of  Mani 
were  first  promulgated  in  the  Roman  empire ;  but  they  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  known  before  the  end  of  the  third 
century  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourth. 

The  Manichaeans  believed,  like  the  Magi,  in  two  eternal 
principles,  from  which  all  things  proceed,  namely,  light 
and  darkness,  which  are  respectively  subject  to  the 
dominion  of  two  beings,  one  the  god  of  good,  and  the  other 
the  god  of  evil.  They  also  believed  that  the  first  parents 
of  the  human  race  were  created  by  the  god  of  darkness 
with  corrupt  and  mortal  bodies,  but  that  their  souls  formed 
part  of  that  eternal  light  which  was  subject  to  the  god  of 
light.  They  maintained  that  it  was  the  great  object  cf 
the  government  of  the  god  of  light  to  deliver  the  captive 
souls  of  men  from  their  corporeal  prisons,  and  that  with 
this  view  he  created  two  sublime  beings,  Christ  and  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  sent  Christ  into  the  world,  clothed  with 
the  shadowy  form  of  a  human  body,  and  not  with  the  real 
substance,  to  teach  mortals  how  to  deliver  the  rational 
soul  from  the  corrupt  body,  and  to  overcome  the  power  of 
malignant  matter.  Referring  to  the  promise  of  Christ 
shortly  before  his  crucifixion,  which  is  recorded  by  John 
(xvi.  7-15),  that  he  would  send  to  his  disciples  the  Com- 
forter, "  who  would  lead  them  into  all  truth,"  the  Mani- 
chaeans  maintained  that  this  promise  was  fulfilled  in  the 
person  of  Mani,  who  was  sent  by  the  god  of  light  to  declare 

29  W 


338  MANICHJSANS. 

to  all  men  the  doctrine  of  salvation,  without  conceali*  (g 
any  of  its  truths  under  the  veil  of  metaphor,  or  under  any 
other  covering.  Mani  also  taught  that  those  souls  which 
obeyed  the  laws  delivered  by  Christ,  as  explained  by  him- 
self the  Comforter,  and  struggled  against  the  lusts  and 
appetites  of  a  corrupt  nature,  would,  on  their  death,  be 
delivered  from  their  sinful  bodies,  and,  after  being  purified 
by  the  sun  and  moon,  would  ascend  to  the  regions  of  light ; 
but  that  those  souls  which  neglected  to  struggle  against 
their  corrupt  natures  would  pass  after  death  into  the  bodies 
of  animals  or  other  beings,  until  they  had  expiated  their 
guilt.  Their  belief  in  the  evil  of  matter  led  them  to  deny 
the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection. 

Mani  entirely  rejected  the  authority  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which  he  had  said  was  the  word  of  the  god  of  dark- 
ness, whom  the  Jews  had  worshipped  in  the  place  of  the 
god  of  light.  He  asserted  that  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament  had  been  grossly  interpolated ;  and  that  they 
were  not  all  written  by  the  persons  whose  names  they  bear. 
The  doctrines  of  the  sect  were  contained  in  four  works, 
Baid  to  have  been  written  by  Mani  himself,  which  were 
entitled  respectively  "  Mysteries,"  u  Chapters,"  "  Gospel," 
and  "Treasury;"  but  we  know  little  or  nothing  of  their 
contents, 

Bower,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  "  History  of  the 
Popes,"  has  attempted  to  prove  that  the  Manichaeans  were 
addicted  to  immoral  practices ;  but  this  opinion  has  been 
ably  controverted  by  Beausobre  and  Lardner,  who  have 
shown  that  they  were,  on  the  contrary,  exceedingly  rigor- 
ous and  austere  in  their  mode  of  life. 

The  disciples  of  Mani  were  divided  into  two  classes,  ono 
of  which  was  called  the  Electr  and  the  other  Hearers 
The  former  were  bound  to  abstain  from  animal  food,  wine, 
wid  all  sensual  enjoyments ;  the  latter  were  considered  aa 


MANICH^JANS.  339 

imperfect  and  feeble  Christians,  and  were  not  obliged  to 
submit  to  such  a  severe  mode  of  life.  The  ecclesiastical 
constitution  of  the  Manicheeans  consisted  of  twelve  apostles 
and  a  president,  who  represented  Christ ;  of  seventy-two 
bishops,  who  also  represented  the  seventy-two  disciples  of 
Christ ;  and  of  presbyters  and  deacons,  as  in  the  Catholic 
church. 

The  Manichaeans  never  appear  to  have  been  very 
numerous,  but  they  were  spread  over  almost  all  parts  of 
the  Christian  world.  Numerous  treatises  were  written 
against  them,  the  most  important  of  which  were  by 
Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  Eusebius  of  Emesa,  Serapion  of 
Thumis,  Athanasius  of  Alexandria,  George  and  Apolli- 
narius  of  Laodicea,  and  Titus  of  Bostra.  Much  valuable 
information  concerning  this  sect  may  be  found  in  the 
writings  of  Augustine,  who  was  for  nine  years  a  zealous 
supporter  of  the  Manichsean  doctrines. 

The  Paulicians  are  generally  considered  to  be  a  branch 
of  the  Manichaean  sect,  and  are  supposed  to  have  appeared 
first  in  the  seventh  century  in  Armenia,  and  to  have 
derived  their  name  from  Paul,  a  zealous  preacher  of  the 
doctrines  of  Mani.  But  this  is  an  error.  See  appendix. 

In  the  sixth  century  the  Manichsean  doctrines  are  said 
to  have  spread  very  widely  in  Persia.  They  continued  to 
have  supporters,  under  their  new  name  of  Paulicianism, 
till  a  very  late  period  in  ecclesiastical  history.  About  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century,  the  emperor  Constantine, 
surnamed  Copronymus,  transplanted  from  Armenia  a  great 
number  of  Paulicians  to  Thrace ;  where  they  continued  to 
exist  even  after  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks.  In  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Paulicians  were  introduced  into  Italy  and 
France,  and  met  with  considerable  success. 


340  MARCIONITES. 


MARCIONITES. 

THE  Marcionites  were  a  religious  sect  of  the  second  and 
third  centuries  of  our  sera,  so  called  from  their  teacher 
Marcion,  a  native  of  Sinope  and  a  priest,  who  adopted  the 
old  Oriental  belief  of  two  independent,  eternal,  co-existing 
principles,  one  evil  and  the  other  good.  He  endeavored 
to  apply  this  doctrine  to  Christianity,  asserting  that  our 
souls  are  emanations  of  the  good  principle,  but  our  bodies 
and  the  whole  visible  world  are  the  creation  of  the  evil 
genius,  who  strives  to  chain  down  our  spiritual  nature  by 
corporeal  fetters,  so  as  to  make  the  soul  forget  its  pure 
and  noble  origin.  He  further  maintained  that  the  law  of 
Moses,  with  its  threats  and  promises  of  things  terrestrial, 
was  a  contrivance  of  the  evil  principle  in  order  to  bind 
men  still  more  to  the  earth  ;  but  that  the  good  principle, 
in  order  to  dissipate  these  delusions,  sent  Jesus  Christ,  a 
pure  emanation  of  itself,  giving  him  a  corporeal  appearance 
and  a  semblance  of  bodily  form,  in  order  to  remind  men 
of  their  intellectual  nature,  and  that  they  cannot  expect 
to  find  happiness  until  they  are  reunited  to  the  principle 
of  good  from  which  they  are  derived.  Marcion  and  his 
disciples  condemned  all  pleasures  which  are  not  spiritual ; 
they  taught  that  it  was  necessary  to  combat  every  impulse 
that  attaches  us  to  the  visible  world ;  they  condemned 
marriage,  and  some  of  them  even  regretted  the  necessity 
of  eating  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  which  they  believed  to 
have  been  created  by  the  evil  principle.  The  Marcionites 
spread  far  in  the  East,  and  especially  in  Persia.  The 
chief  opponent  of  Marcion  was  Tertullianus,  who  wrote  a 
book  to  refute  his  doctrines. 


MARONITES. 


MAEONITES. 

MARONITES  is  the  name  of  a  community  of  Christians 
belonging  to  the  "Western  or  Roman  church,  and  living  on 
Mount  Lebanon.  They  are  the  neighbors  of,  and  allied 
to,  and  in  some  places  mixed  with  the  Druses,  and,  like 
them,  independent,  in  great  measure,  of  the  Turkish 
power.  The  Maronites  occupy  the  valleys  and  fastnesses 
of  the  principal  ridge  of  Lebanon  east  of  Beyroot  and 
Tripoli,  and  they  extend  inland  as  far  as  the  Bekaa,  01 
plain  between  the  Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus,  where  they 
are  mixed  with  the  Druses,  though  they  do  not  intermarry 
with  them.  The  town  of  Zhakle,  in  the  valley  of  Bekaa, 
contains  between  ten  and  twelve  thousand  inhabitants, 
chiefly  Maronites. 

There  are  also  many  Maronites  at  Beyroot  and  Tripoli, 
but  the  tract  of  country  in  which  the  great  bulk  of  the 
Maronites  reside  is  called  Kesrouan.  It  extends  along 
the  ridge  of  Libanus  from  the  Nahr  el  Kelb,  a  stream 
which  enters  the  sea  twelve  miles  north  of  Beyroot,  to  the 
Nahr  el  Kebir,  which  enters  the  sea  north  of  Tripoli,  near 
the  island  of  Ruad,  the  ancient  Aradus,  on  which  side  the 
Maronites  border  on  the  Nosairis,  or  Ansarieh,  who  extend 
to  the  northward  towards  Latakieh,  and  the  Ismaelians, 
who  live  farther  inland,  near  the  banks  of  the  Orontes. 
To  the  eastward,  the  Maronites  have  for  neighbors  the 
Metualis,  a  tribe  of  independent  Moslems,  of  the  sect  of 
Ali,  who  live  under  their  own  emir,  and  occupy  the  bclad 
or  district  of  Baalbek  and  part  of  the  Anti-Libanus ;  and 
on  the  south  they  border  on  the  territory  of  the  Druses, 
with  whom  they  form  one  political  body,  being  subject  to 
the  Emir  Beschir,  in  so  far  as  they  join  him  when  he  calls 

29* 


342  MARONITES. 

them  to  arms  for  the  common  defence,  and  pay  him  their 
Bhare  of  the  tribute,  which  the  emir  paid  formerly  to  the 
Porte,  and  n  DW  pays  to  the  pasha  of  Egypt.  But  in  their 
internal  concerns  the  Maronites  are  governed  by  their 
own  sheiks,  of  whom  there  is  one  in  every  village,  from 
whose  decision  there  is  an  appeal  to  the  bishops,  who  have 
great  authcrity;  and  in  some  cases  to  the  emir  of  the 
Druses,  and  his  divan  or  council. 

The   clergy   are   very   numerous;    the   secular   parish 
clergy  are   married,  as   in   the  Greek   church ;   but   the 
regular  clergy,  who  are  said  to  amount  to  20,000,  and  are 
distributed  among  about  200  convents,  follow  the  rule  of 
St.  Anthony,  and  are   bound   by  vows   of  chastity  and 
obedience.     The  Maronite  monks  are  not  idle ;  they  cul- 
tivate the  land  belonging  to  their  convents,  and  live  by  its 
produce.     Every  convent  is  a  farm.     The    convents  are 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  of  whom  there  is  one  in 
every  large  village.     The  bishops  are  under  the  obligation 
of  celibacy.     The  bishops  collectively  elect  the  patriarch, 
who  is  confirmed  by  the  pope,  and  who   resides   at   the 
convent  of  Kanobin,  in  a  valley  of  the  Libanus,  south-east 
of  Tripoli,  where  there  is  a  printing-press,  which  furnishes 
the  elementary  books  for  the  use  of  the  Maronite  schools. 
Not  far  from  Kanobin  is  the  large  village  of  Eden,  ten 
miles  above  which,  and  high  up  the  Libanus,  is  the  famed 
clump  of  old  cedars,  called  the  "  Cedars  of  Solomon,"  of 
large   dimensions,  but   now  reduced  to  seven  in  number 
(Lamartine,  Voyage  en  Orient ;  Richardson),  not  including 
the  younger  and  smaller  ones.     Dr.  Richardson  measured 
the  trunk  of  one  of  the  old  trees,  and  found  it  thirty-two 
feet  in  circumference.     The  whole  clump  of  old  and  young 
trees  may  be  walked  round  in  about  half  an  hour.     Old 
cedars  are  not  found  in  any  other  part  of  Libanus. 
At  the  opposite  or  southern  extremity  of  the  Kesrouan 


MARON1TES.  343 

is  the  handsome  convent  of  Antoura,  which  is  the  residence 
of  the  papal  legate  and  of  some  European  missionaries. 
Near  it  is  a  convent  of  Maronite  nuns. 

The  Maronites  derive  their  name  from  a  monk  of  the 
name  of  Maro,  who.  in  the  fifth  century,  collected  a  number 
of  followers,  and  founded  several  convents  in  these  moun- 
tains. When  the  Monothelite  heresy  prevailed  in  the  East 
in  the  seventh  century,  and  was  favored  by  the  court  o? 
Constantinople,  many  Christians  who  did  not  embrace  its 
tenets  took  refuge  in  the  fastnesses  of  Libanus,  around  the 
convents,  and  thus  the  name  of  Maronites  was  assumed  by 
the  population  of  the  mountains.  This  is  the  account  of 
the  Maronites  themselves ;  others  pretend  that  the  Maro- 
nites were  Monothelites,  who  took  refuge  in  the  Libanua 
after  the  Emperor  Anastasius  II.  had  condemned  and  pro- 
scrbed  their  sect,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century. 
Joseph  Simonius  Assemani,  and  his  friend  Ambarach, 
better  known  as  Father  Benedetti,  have  defended  the 
Maronites  from  the  v/harge  of  Monothelitism.  Ambarach 
translated  from  the  Arabic  into  Latin  the  work  of  Stephen, 
patriarch  of  Antioch,  concerning  the  origin  and  liturgy  of 
the  Maronites.  In  1736,  at  a  great  synod  held  at  Mar- 
hanna,  the  Maronite  church  formally  acknowledged  the 
canons  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  but  they  retained  the  mass 
in  the  Syriac  language,  and  the  marriage  of  the  priests. 
Before  that  time  they  received  the  sacrament  under  both 
forms,  as  in  the  Greek  church.  At  mass  the  priest  turns 
towards  the  congregation  and  reads  the  gospel  of  the  day 
in  Arabic,  which  is  the  vulgar  tongue. 

The  Maronite  population  is  said  to  be  above  200,000 
individuals,  and  to  contain  between  thirty  and  forty  thou- 
sand men  fit  for  military  service.  Every  Maionite  is 
armed,  and  they  are  all  soldiers  in  case  of  need.  Volney 
reckoned  them,  in  1784,  a*  120,000,  but  the  pcpulation 


344 


CALVINISTS. 


has  been  rapidly  increasing  since  that  time.  Their  Ian 
guage  is  Arabic,  and  by  their  appearance  and  habits  they 
belong  to  the  Arabian  race.  They  are  a  fine-looking 
people,  high-spirited,  civil,  and  hospitable,  especially 
towards  European  travellers,  and  perfectly  honest.  Rob- 
bery and  other  acts  of  violence  are  hardly  known  among 
them.  They  are  altogether  an  interesting  race,  full  of 
vigor,  and  perhaps  destined  with  the  Druses  to  act  an 
important  part  in  the  future  vicissitudes  of  Syria.  (Jowett, 
Light,  Lamartine,  and  other  travellers  in  Syria.) 

There  is  at  Rome,  on  the  Quirinal  Mount,  a  convent  of 
Maronite  monks,  who  perform  the  service  of  the  mass  in 
the  Syriac  language,  according  to  the  liturgy  of  their 
country.  This  church  was  founded  by  Pope  Gregory 
XIIL,  and  is  dedicated  to  St.  John.  The  monastery 
serves  as  a  college  for  young  Maronites  who  como  to 
Rome  to  study  and  take  orders,  after  which  they  return 
to  their  own  country.  It  is  one  of  those  exotic  colonies 
which  give  a  peculiar  interest  to  the  city  of  Rome. 

The  ceremonies  of  these  Maronites  of  Rome  on  great 
festivals,  their  chanting  in  Syriac,  and  their  curious 
musical  instruments,  are  described  by  the  Abbe'  Richard, 
in  his  "Voyage  en  Italie." 


CALVINISTS. 

THE  followers  of  the  religious  doctrine  and  Church 
government  instituted  by  Calvin.  Calvin  published  his 
system  in  his  "Christian  Institutes,"  in  the  year  1536; 
but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  obtained  the  name  of  Cal- 
vinism, nor  its  supporters  the  name  of  Calvinists,  till  the 
conference  cf  Poissy,  in  1561.  The  reformer  was  not 


y 


OALVINISTS.  M5 

himself  present  at  that  assembly,  being  prevented  from 
attending  by  his  local  duties  and  the  ill  state  of  his  health ; 
but  we  see  from  his  correspondence  with  Beza,  the  deputy 
from  Geneva,  how  deep  was  his  interest  in  its  proceedings, 
and  that  nothing  was  done  on  the  part  of  the  reformers 
without  his  knowledge  and  advice.  In  the  debate  which 
took  place  on  the  Augsburg  Confession,  the  points  of  differ- 
ence between  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  were  drawu 
out;  and  they  were  such  as  that  from  thenceforth  the 
latter  became  known  as  a  distinct  sect  under  that  denomi- 
nation. 

The  tenets  of  Calvinism  respect  the  doctrines  of  the 
Trinity,  predestination,  or  particular  election  and  repro- 
bation, original  sin,  particular  redemption,  effectual  or 
irresistible  grace  in  regeneration,  justification  by  faith,  and 
the  perseverance  of  Saints  ;  together  also  with  the  govern- 
ment and  discipline  of  the  Church,  the  nature  of  the 
eucharist,  and  the  qualification  of  those  entitled  to  partake 
of  it.  The  great  leading  principles  of  the  system,  how« 
ever,  are  the  absolute  decrees  of  God,  the  spiritual  pres- 
ence of  Christ  in  the  eucharist,  and  the  independence  of 
the  Church. 

Calvinism  was,  perhaps,  like  Lutheranism,  exemplified 
first  at  Strasburg ;  where,  in  the  year  1538,  Calvin  esta- 
blished a  French  church  on  his  own  plan.  But  it  was  at 
Geneva  the  system  was  seen  in  all  its  vigor ;  and  from 
thence  it  spread  into  France,  Germany,  Prussia,  the  United 
Provinces,  England  and  Scotland.  To  this  last  place  it 
was  carried  by  Knox,  the  disciple  and  intimate  correspond- 
ent of  Calvin ;  and  as  within  the  little  territory  of  Geneva 
there  was  neither  room  nor  need  for  the  parochial  sessions, 
presbyteries,  provincial  synods,  and  general  assembly,  into 
which  the  presbyterial  government  expands  itself  in  a  large 
community,  we  shall  briefly  advert  to  its  leading  features 


346  CALVINISIS. 

in  Scotland,  as  it  appeared  there  in  the  lifetime  of  Knox. 
We  shall  thus,  indeed,  see  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  its 
infancy ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  —  and  it  is  this  we  have 
chiefly  in  view, — we  shall  thus,  perhaps,  have  the  best  idea 
of  the  matured  opinions  of  the  great  reformer. 

The  Confession  of  Faith,  ratified  by  the  Scotch  parlia- 
ment  in  1560,  declares  *  that  by  the  sin  of  our  first  parents, 
"  commonly  called  original  sin,  the  image  of  God  was 
utterly  defaced  in  man,  and  he  and  his  posterity  of  nature 
became  enemies  of  God,  slaves  to  Satan,  and  servants  unto 
sin ;  insomuch  that  death  everlasting  has  had,  and  shall 
have,  power  and  dominion  over  all  that  have  not  been,  are 
not,  or  shall  not  be,  regenerated  from  above,  which  regene- 
ration is  wrought  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost  working 
in  the  hearts  of  the  elect  of  God  an  assured  faith  in  the 
promise  of  God  revealed  in  his  word;  that  "from  the 
eternal  and  immutable  decree  of  God  all  our  salvation 
springs  and  depends ;"  "  God  of  mere  grace  electing  us  in 
Christ  Jesus  his  Son  before  the  foundation  of  the  world 
was  laid ;"  and  that  "  our  faith  and  the  assurance  of  the 
same  proceeds  not  from  flesh  and  blood,  that  is  to  say, 
from  our  natural  powers  within  us,  but  is  the  inspiration 
of  the  Holy  Ghost;"  "who  sanctifies  us  and  brings  us  in 
all  verity  by  his  own  operation,  without  whom  we  should 
remain  for  ever  enemies  to  God  and  ignorant  of  his  son 
Christ  Jesus ;  for  of  nature  we  are  so  dead,  so  blind,  and 
BO  perverse,  that  neither  can  we  feel  when  we  are  pricked, 
see  the  light  when  it  shines,  nor  assent  to  the  will  of  God 
when  it  is  revealed,  unless  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
quicken  that  which  is  dead,  remove  the  darkness  from  our 
minds,  and  bow  our  stubborn  hearts  tD  the  obedience  of 
his  blessed  will;"  "so  that  the  cause  of  good  works  we 

*  We  have  here  modernized  the  spelling. 


CALVINISTS.  347 

confess  to  be  not  our  free  will,  but  the  spirit  of  the  Lord 
Jesus,  who,  dwelling  in  our  hearts  by  true  faith,  brings 
forth  such  works  as  God  has  prepared  for  us  to  walk  in ;" 
and  "  whoso  boast  themselves  of  the  merits  of  their  own 
works,  or  put  their  trust  in  works  of  supererogation,  boast 
themselves  in  that  which  is  not,  and  put  their  trust  in 
damnable  idolatry."     It  further  admits  that  "we  now,  in 
the  time  of  the  evangel,  have  two  chief  sacraments  only," 
to  wit,  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper;  by  the  former  of 
which,  "  we  are  ingrafted  in  Christ  Jesus  to  be  made  par« 
takers  of  his  justice,  by  which  our  sins  are  covered  and 
remitted ;"  and  in  the  latter  it  is  asserted  there  is  a  real 
though  only  spiritual  presence  of  Christ,  and  "  in  the  sup- 
per rightly  used,  Christ  Jesus  is  joined  with  us,  that  he 
becomes  very  nourishment  and  food  of  our  souls."     The 
marks  of  a  true  church  are  said  to  be  the  true  preaching 
of  the  word  of  God,  the  right  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments, and  ecclesiastical  discipline  rightly  administered  as 
the  word  of  God  prescribes.     The  polity  or  constitution 
of  the  Church,  however,  is  not  detailed ;  this  was  done  in 
the  "Book  of  discipline"  drawn   up   by  Knox   and  his 
brethren.     The  highest  Church  judicatory  is  the  General 
Assembly,  composed  of  representatives  from  the  others, 
which  are  provincial  synods,  presbyteries,  and  kirk  ses- 
sions.   The  officers  of  the  Church  are  pastors  or  ministers, 
doctors  or  teachers,  and  lay  elders,  to  which  are  to  be 
added  lay  deacons,  for  the  care  of  the  poor.     Among  the 
clergy  there  is  a  perfect  parity  of  jurisdiction  and  autho- 
rity, and  in  the  Church  courts  clergy  and  laity  have  equal 
voices.     The  minister  and  the  elder  indeed  are  both  pres- 
lyter*  —  the  one  a  preaching  presbyter,  and  the  other  a 
ruling  presbyter ;  and  it  will  be  remembered  that  when 
Bucer  expressed  his  approbation  of  the  episcopal  hierarchy 
of  England,  Calvin  said  it  was  only  another  papacy. «   An- 


348  MOLINISTS. 

other  principle,  recognised  alike  by  Calvin  and  the  re- 
formers of  Scotland,  was  the  education  of  the  people ; 
Thich  both  seem  to  have  regarded  as  the  rock  upon  which 
the  Reformed  Church  should  be  built ;  and  in  Scotland,  as 
was  fit,  this  foundation  was  as  broad  as  the  building,  it 
being  meant  that,  besides  the  universities  of  the  kingdom, 
there  should  be  in  every  district  a  parish  church  and  a 
parish  school. 


MOLINISTS. 

Louis  MOLINA,  born  at  Cuenga  in  Castile,  entered  the 
Drder  of  Jesuits  in  1553.  He  studied  at  Coimbra,  became  a 
learned  divine,  and  taught  theology  for  twenty  years  in  the 
college  of  Evora.  He  died  at  Madrid  in  the  year  1600.  He 
wrote  commentaries  upon  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  a  treatise 
"De  Justitia  et  Jure;"  but  the  work  which  has  rendered 
his  name  famous  as  the  head  of  a  school  of  theology  is  his 
book  "  De  Concordia  Gratiae  et  Liberi  Arbitrii,"  printed  at 
Lisbon  in  1568,  with  an  appendix  to  it,  published  after. 
In  this  work  Molina  undertook  the  task  of  reconciling  the 
free-will  of  man  with  the  foreknowledge  of  God  and  predes- 
tination. He  observed  that  the  early  fathers  who  had  pre- 
ceded the  heresy  of  Pelagius  had  defined  predestination  as 
being  the  foreknowledge  of  God  from  all  eternity  of  tha 
use  which  each  individual  would  make  of  his  free-will ;  but 
St.  Augustine,  who  had  to  oppose  the  Pelagians,  who 
granted  too  much  to  free-will,  spoke  of  predestination  in  a 
more  absolute  and  restricted  sense.  Molina  says  that  man 
requires  grace  in  order  to  do  good,  but  that  God  never 
fails  to  grant  this  grace  to  those  who  ask  it  with  fervor. 


MOLINISTS.  349 

lie  also  asserts  that  man  has  it  in  his  power  to  answer,  or 
not,  to  the  calling  of  grace. 

The  opinions  of  Molina,  which  were  adopted,  enlarged, 
and  commented  upon  by  the  Jesuits,  and  strongly  opposed 
by  the  Dominicans,  gave  rise  to  the  long  disputes  concern- 
ing grace  and  free-will.  The  partisans  of  Molina  were 
called  Molinists,  and  their  antagonists  Thomists,  from  Tho- 
mas Aquinas,  the  favorite  divine  of  the  Dominican  order. 
Already  in  Molina's  lifetime  his  opinions  were  stigmatized 
as  savoring  of  Pelagianism.  After  numerous  disputations, 
Pope  Paul  V.,  in  1609,  forbade  both  Jesuits  and  Domini- 
cans from  reviving  the  controversy.  But  soon  after  Jan- 
senius,  bishop  of  Ypres,  wrote  a  book  in  which  he  dis- 
cussed the  question  concerning  grace  after  the  manner  of 
St.  Augustine.  His  book  was  denounced  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  thus  the  dispute  began  afresh  between  the  Molinista 
and  the  Jansenists.  Pascal,  in  his  second  "Lettre  Pro 
vinciale,"  gives  an  account  of  the  state  of  the  contro- 
versy in  his  time.  He  says  that  "  the  Jesuits  pretend  that 
there  is  a  sufficient  grace  imparted  unto  all  men,  and  sub- 
ordinate to  their  free-will,  which  can  render  it  active  or 
inactive,  while  the  Jansenists  maintain  that  the  only  suffi- 
cient grace  is  that  which  is  efficacious,  that  is  to  say,  which 
determines  the  will  to  act  effectively.  The  Jesuits  sup- 
port the  'sufficient  grace,'  the  Jansenists  the  'efficacious 
grace.' ' 

Molina  must  not  be  confounded  with  Molinos  (Michael}* 
a  Spanish  clergyman  of  the  seventeenth  century,  who  was 
the  founder  of  the  theory  of  piety  and  devotion  called  Qui- 
etism, of  which  Fenelon  and  Madame  Guyon  were  distin- 
guished supporters. 
so 


350  MONTANISTS. 


MONTANISTS, 

OR  CATAPHRYGIANS,  were  a  sect  of  Christians,  which  arose 
in  Phrygia  about  171  A.  D.  They  were  called  Montanistl 
from  their  leader  Montanus,  and  Cataphrygians  or  Phry- 
gians, from  the  country  in  which  they  first  appeared. 

Of  the  personal  history  of  Montanus  little  is  known, 
He  is  said  to  have  been  born  at  Ardaba,  a  village  in  Mysia, 
and  to  have  been  only  a  recent  convert  when  he  first  made 
pretensions  to  *ne  character  of  a  prophet.  His  principal 
associates  were  two  prophetesses,  named  Prisca  or  Priscilla, 
and  Maximilla.  According  to  some  of  the  ancient  writers, 
Montanus  was  believed  by  his  followers  to  be  the  Paraclete, 
or  Holy  Spirit.  Probably  this  is  an  exaggeration,  but  it 
is  certain  that  he  claimed  divine  inspiration  for  himself  and 
his  associates.  They  delivered  their  prophecies  in  an 
ecstasy,  and  their  example  seems  to  have  introduced  inta 
the  church  the  practice  of  appealing  to  visions  in  favor  of 
opinions  and  actions,  of  which  practice  Cyprian  and  others 
availed  themselves  to  a  great  extent.  Tertullian,  who  be- 
longed to  this  sect,  informs  us  that  these  revelations  rela- 
ted only  to  points  of  discipline,  and  neither  affected  the 
doctrines  of  religion  nor  superseded  the  authority  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  doctrines  of  Montanus  agreed  in  general  with 
those  of  the  Catholic  Church,  but  some  of  his  followers  ap- 
pear to  have  embraced  the  Sabellian  heresy.  The  Moi> 
tanists  were  chiefly  distinguished  from  other  Christians  by 
the  austerity  of  their  manners  and  the  strictness  of  their 
discipline.  They  condemned  second  marriages,  and  prac- 
tised fasts.  They  maintained  that  all  flight  from  perse- 
cution was  unlawful,  and  that  the  Church  had  no  power  to 
forgive  great  sins  committed  after  baptism.  They  held  the 


MUGGLETONIANS.  351 

doctrine  of  the  personal  reign  of  Christ  on  earth  at  the 
Millennium.  They  are  accused  by  some  of  the  early  writers 
of  celebrating  mysteries  attended  by  deeds  of  cruelty  and 
lewdness,  but  it  appears  quite  certain  that  these  charges 
are  unfounded. 

The  Montanists  were  warmly  opposed  by  the  writers  of 
the  Catholic  party,  though  they  were  once  countenanced 
for  a  short  time  by  a  bishop  of  Rome,  whose  name  is  un- 
known, but  who  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  Victor. 
Tertullian  wrote  several  works  in  defence  of  their  opinions. 

The  sect  was  numerous,  and  lasted  a  considerable  time. 
They  still  existed  in  the  time  of  Augustin  ^nd  Jerome,  the 
latter  of  whom  wrote  against  them. 


MUGGLETONIANS. 

THE  Muggletonians  were  a  sect  of  Christians  which  arose 
in  England  in  the  year  1651.  The  leaders  of  this  sect 
were  Lodowicke  Muggleton,  a  journeyman  tailor,  and  John 
Reeve,  who  asserted  that  they  had  been  appointed  by  an 
audible  voice  from  God,  as  the  last  and  greatest  prophets 
of  Jesus  Christ,  that  they  were  the  two  witnesses  mentioned 
in  the  llth  chapter  of  the  Revelations,  and  that  they  had 
power  to  bless  or  damn  to  all  eternity  whomsoever  they 
pleased.  They  published  a  great  number  of  works,  and 
obtained  many  followers.  The  chief  writers  against  them 
were  the  Quakers,  and  among  these,  George  Fox  and  Wm. 
Penn.  On  the  17th  of  January,  1676,  Muggleton  was  tried 
at  the  Old  Bailey,  and  convicted  of  blasphemy.  He  died 
on  the  14th  of  March,  1697,  at  the  age  of  88. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  give  a  full  account  of  the  strange 


352 


FLAGELLANTS. 


doctrines  of  tins  sect.  The  chief  articles  of  their  creed 
appear  to  have  been,  that  God  has  the  real  body  of  a  man, 
that  the  Trinity  is  only  a  variety  of  names  of  God,  that 
God  himself  came  down  to  earth,  and  was  born  as  a  man 
and  suffered  death,  and  that  during  this  time  >Elias  was 
his  representative  in  heaven.  They  held  very  singular 
and  not  very  intelligible  doctrines  concerning  angels  and 
devils.  According  to  them  the  soul  of  man  is  inseparably 
united  with  the  body,  with  which  it  dies  and  will  rise 
again. 

A  complete  collection  of  the  works  of  Reeve  and  Mug- 
gleton,  together  with  other  Muggletonian  tracts,  was  pub- 
lished by  some  of  their  modern  followers,  in  3  vols.  4to., 
1832.  Among  the  works  written  against  them  are  the  fol- 
lowing: "The  New  Witnesses  proved  Old  Heretics,"  by 
William  Penn,  4to.,  1672  ;  "A  True  Representation  of  the 
Absurd  and  Mischievous  Principles  of  the  Sect  commonly 
known  by  the  name  of  Muggletonians,"  4to.,  London,  1694. 


FLAGELLANTS, 

the  Latin  flagellare,  to  beat,)  the  name  of  a  sect  n; 
the  13th  century,  who  thought  that  they  could  best  expiate 
their  sins  by  the  severe  discipline  of  the  scourge.  Rainer, 
a  hermit  of  Perugia,  is  said  to  have  been  its  founder,  in 
1260.  He  soon  found  followers  in  nearly  all  parts  of  Italy. 
Old  and  young,  great  and  small,  ran  through  the  cities, 
scourging  themselves,  and  exhorting  to  repentance.  Their 
Dumber  soon  amounted  to  10,000,  who  went  about,  led  by 
priests  bearing  banners  and  crosses.  They  went  in  thou- 
sands from  country  to  country,  begging  alms.  In  1261, 


FLAGELLANTS.  353 

they  broke  over  the  Alps  in  crowds  into  Germany,  showed 
themselves  in  Alsatia,  Bavaria,  Bohemia,  and  Poland,  and 
found  there  many  imitators.  In  1296,  a  small  band  of  Fla« 
gellants  appeared  in  Strasburg,  who,  with  covered  faces, 
whipped  themselves  through  the  city,  and  at  every  church. 
The  princes  and  higher  clergy  were  little  pleased  with  thia 
new  fraternity,  although  it  was  favored  by  the  people.  The 
shameful  public  exposure  of  the  person  by  the  Flagellants 
offended  good  manners ;  their  travelling  in  such  numbers 
afforded  opportunity  for  seditious  commotions,  and  irregu- 
larities of  all  sorts ;  and  their  extortion  of  alms  was  a 
severe  tax  upon  the  peaceful  citizen.  On  this  account, 
both  in  Germany  and  in  Italy,  several  princes  forbade  these 
expeditions  of  the  Flagellants.  The  kings  of  Poland  and 
Bohemia  expelled  them  with  violence  from  their  states,  and 
the  bishops  strenuously  opposed  them.  In  spite  of  this,  the 
society  continued  under  another  form,  in  the  fraternities 
of  the  Beghards,  in  Germany  and  France,  and  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifteenth  century,  among  the  Brothers  of  the 
Cross,  so  numerous  in  Thuringia  (so  called  from  wearing 
on  their  clothes  a  cross  on  the  breast  and  on  the  back),  of 
whom  91  were  burnt  at  once  at  Sangershausen,  in  1414. 
The  council  assembled  at  Constance,  between  1414  and 
1418,  was  obliged  to  take  decisive  measures  against  them. 
Since  this  time  nothing  more  has  been  heard  of  a  fraternity 
of  this  sort. 

Flagellation  has  almost  always  been  used  for  the  punish- 
ment of  crimes.  Its  application  as  a  means  of  religious 
penance  is  an  old  Oriental  custom,  admitted  into  Christi- 
anity partly  because  self-torture  was  considered  salutary 
as  mortifying  the  flesh,  and  partly  because  both  Christ  arvl 
the  apostles  underwent  scourging.  From  the  first  centuiy 
of  Christianity,  religious  persons  sought  to  atone  for  their 
sins,  and  to  move  an  impartial  Judge  to  compassion  and 
so*  X 


354  FLAGELLANTS. 

pardon  by  voluntary  bodily  torture.     Like  the  abbot  Re- 
gino,  at  Prum,  in  the  10th  century,  many  chose  to  share 
in  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  in  order  to  make  themselves  the 
more  certain  of  forgiveness  through  him.     It  became  gen- 
eral in  the  llth  century,  when  Peter  Damiani  of  Ravenna, 
abbot  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Santa  Croce  d'Avel- 
lano,  near  Gubbio,  in  Italy,  afterwards  cardinal  bishop  of 
Ostia,  zealously  recommended  scourging  as  an  atonement 
for  sin,  to  Christians  generally,  and,  in  particular,  to  the 
monks.     His  own  example,  and  the  fame  of  his  sanctity, 
rendered  his  exhortations  effective.    Clergy  and  laity,  men 
and  women,  began  to  torture  themselves  with  rods  and 
thongs  and  chains.    They  fixed  certain  times  for  the  inflic- 
tion of  this  discipline  upon  themselves.     Princes  caused 
themselves  to  be  scourged  naked  by  their  father  confessors. 
Louis  IX.  constantly  carried  with  him,  for  this  purpose,  »n 
ivory  box,  containing  five  small  iron  chains,  and  exhorted 
his  father  confessor  to  scourge  him  with  severity.    He  like- 
wise gave  similar  boxes  to  the  princes  and  princesses  of  his 
house,  an«i  to  other  pious  friends,  as  marks  of  his  peculiar 
favor.     The  wild  expectation  of  being  purified  from  sin  by 
flagellation,  prevailed  throughout  Europe  in  the  last  half 
of  the  13th  century.     ''About  this  time,"  says  the  monk 
of  Padua,  in  his  chronicles  of  the  year  1260,  "  when  all 
Italy  was  filled  with  vice,  the  Perugians  suddenly  entered 
upon  a  course  never  before  thought  of;    after  them  the 
Romans,  and  at  length  all  Italy.    The  fear  of  Christ  exerted 
upon  the  people  so  strong  an  influence,  that  men  of  noble 
and  ignoble  birth,  old  and  young,  traversed  the  streets  of 
khe  city  naked,  yet  without  shame.   Each  carried  a  scourge 
in  his  hand,  with  which  he  drew  forth  blood  from  his  tor- 
tured body,  amidst  sighs  and  tears,  singing,  at  the  same 
time,  penitential  psalms,  and  entreating  the  compassion  of 
the  Deity.   Both  by  day  and  night,  and  even  in  the  coldest 


FLAGELLANTS.  355 

winters,  by  hundreds  and  thousands,  they  wandered  through 
cities  and  churches,  streets  and  villages,  with  burning  wax 
candles.  Music  was  then  silent,  and  the  song  of  love  echoed 
no  more;  nothing  was  heard  but  atoning  lamentations. 
The  most  unfeeling  could  not  refrain  from  tears ;  discord- 
ant parties  were  reconciled;  usurers  and  robbers  hastened 
to  restore  their  unlawful  gains ;  criminals,  before  unsus- 
pected, came  and  confessed  their  crimes,  &c."  But  these 
penances  soon  degenerated  into  noisy  fanaticism  and  a  sort 
of  trade.  The  penitents  united  into  fraternities  called  the 
Flagellants  (described  above),  of  which  there  were  branches 
in  Italy,  France,  and  Germany.  After  the  council  of  Con- 
stance (1414—18),  both  clergy  and  laity  by  degrees  became 
disgusted  with  flagellation.  The  Franciscan  monks  in 
France  (Cordeliers)  observed  the  practice  longest.  It  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at,  that  a  custom  so  absurd  was  so  long 
maintained,  when  we  remember  the  great  advantages  which 
the  sufferers  promised  themselves.  In  the  opinion  of  men 
in  the  middle  ages,  flagellation  was  equivalent  to  every  sort 
of  expiation  for  past  sins,  imposed  by  the  father  confessors. 
3000  strokes,  and  the  chanting  of  30  penitential  psalrns, 
were  sufficient  to  cancel  the  sins  of  a  year  ;  30,000  strokes, 
the  sins  of  10  years,  &c.  An  Italian  widow,  in  the  llth 
century,  boasted  that  she  had  made  expiation  by  voluntary 
scourging  for  100  years,  for  which  no  less  than  300,000 
stripes  were  requisite.  The  opinion  was  prevalent,  like- 
wise, that,  however  great  the  guilt,  by  self-inflicted  pain, 
hell  might  be  escaped,  and  the  honor  of  peculiar  holiness 
acquired.  By  this  means,  flagellation  gained  a  charm  in 
the  sight  of  the  guilty  and  ambitious,  which  raised  thera 
above  the  dread  of  corporeal  suffering,  till  the  conceits  uf 
hypocrisy  vanished  before  the  clearer  light  of  civilization 
and  knowledge. 


ANABAPTISTS, 


ANABAPTISTS. 

ANABAPTISTS  are  those  who  maintain  that  baptism  ought 
always  to  he  performed  by  immersion.  The  word  is  com- 
pounded of  ava,  "anew,"  and  fSairrKtv^  "a  Baptist;"  sig- 
nifying that  those  who  have  been  baptized  in  their  infancy 
ought  to  be  baptized  anew.  It  is  a  word  which  has  been 
indiscriminately  applied  to  Christians  of  very  different 
principles  and  practices.  The  English  and  Dutch  Bap- 
tists do  not  consider  the  word  as  at  all  applicable  to  their 
sect ;  because  those  persons  whom  they  baptize  they  con- 
sider as  never  having  been  baptized  before,  although  they 
have  undergone  what  they  term  the  ceremony  of  sprink- 
ling in  their  infancy. 

The  Anabaptists  of  Germany,  besides  their  notions  con- 
cerning baptism,  depended  much  upon  certain  ideas  which 
they  entertained  concerning  a  perfect  church  establish- 
ment, pure  in  its  members,  and  free  from  the  institutions 
of  human  policy.  The  most  prudent  part  of  them  consi- 
dered it  possible,  by  human  industry  and  vigilance,  to 
purify  the  church ;  and  seeing  the  attempts  of  Luther  to 
be  successful,  they  hoped  that  the  period  was  arrived  in 
which  the  church  was  to  be  restored  to  this  purity.  Others, 
not  satisfied  with  Luther's  plan  of  reformation,  undertook 
a  more  perfect  plan,  or,  more  properly,  a  visionary  enter- 
prise, to  found  a  new  church,  entirely  spiritual  and  divine. 

This  sect  was  soon  joined  by  great  numbers,  whose 
characters  and  capacities  were  very  different.  Their  pro- 
gress was  rapid ;  for,  in  a  very  short  space  of  time,  their 
discourses,  visions,  and  predictions,  excited  great  commo- 
tions in  a  great  part  of  Europe.  The  most  pernicious  fac- 


ANABAPTISTS.  357 

tion  of  all  those  which  composed  this  motley  multitude, 
was  that  which  pretended  that  the  founders  of  this  new 
and  perfect  church  were  under  a  divine  impulse,  and  were 
armed  against  all  opposition  by  the  power  of  working 
miracles.  It  was  this  faction  that,  in  the  year  1521,  be« 
gan  their  fanatical  work  under  the  guidance  of  Munzer, 
Stubner,  Storick,  etc.  These  men  taught  that,  among 
Christians,  who  had  the  precepts  of  the  gospel  to  direct, 
and  the  Spirit  of  God  to  guide  them,  the  office  of  magis- 
tracy was  not  only  unnecessary,  but  an  unlawful  encroach- 
ment on  their  spiritual  liberty ;  that  the  distinctions  occa- 
sioned by  birth,  rank,  or  wealth  should  be  abolished ;  that 
all  Christians,  throwing  their  possessions  into  one  stock, 
should  live  together  in  that  state  of  equality  which  be- 
comes members  of  the  same  family ;  that,  as  neither  the 
laws  of  nature,  nor  the  precepts  of  the  New  Testament, 
had  prohibited  polygamy,  they  should  use  the  same  liberty 
as  the  patriarchs  did  in  this  respect. 

They  employed,  at  first,  the  various  arts  of  persuasion 
in  order  to  propagate  their  doctrines,  and  related  a  number 
of  visions  and  revelations  with  which  they  pretended  to 
have  been  favored  from  above ;  but  when  they  found  that 
this  would  not  avail,  and  that  the  ministry  of  Luther  and 
other  reformers  was  detrimental  to  their  cause,  they  then 
madly  attempted  to  propagate  their  sentiments  by  force  of 
arms.  Munzer  and  his  associates,  in  the  year  1525,  put 
themselves  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  army,  and  declared 
war  against  all  laws,  governments,  and  magistrates  of 
every  kind,  under  the  chimerical  pretext  that  Christ  him- 
self was  now  to  take  the  reins  of  all  government  into  his 
hands  ;  but  this  seditious  crowd  was  routed  and  dispersed 
by  the  Electer  of  Saxony  and  other  princes,  and  Munzer, 
their  leader,  put  to  death. 

Many  of  his  followers,  however,  survived,  and  propa- 


358  ANABAPTTSTS. 

gntcd  their  opinions  through  Germany,  Switzerland,  and 
Holland.  In  1533,  a  party  of  them  settled  at  Munster, 
under  two  leaders  of  the  names  of  Matthias  and  Bock- 
holdt.  Having  made  themselves  masters  of  the  city,  they 
deposed  the  magistrates,  confiscated  the  estates  of  such  aa 
hnd  escaped,  and  deposited  the  wealth  in  a  public  treasury 
for  common  use.  They  made  preparations  for  the  defence 
of  the  city ;  invited  the  Anahaptists  in  the  Low  Countries 
to  assemble  at  Munster,  which  they  called  Mount  Sion, 
that  from  thence  they  might  reduce  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth  under  their  dominion.  Matthias  was  soon  cut  off  hy 
the  Bishop  of  Munster's  army,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Bockholdt,  who  was  proclaimed  by  a  special  designation 
of  heaven,  as  the  pretended  King  of  Sion,  and  invested 
with  legislative  powers  like  those  of  Moses.  The  city  of 
Munster,  however,  was  taken  after  a  long  siege,  and  Bock- 
hoi  <lt  punished  with  death. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  true  rise  of  the  insur- 
rections of  this  period  ought  not  to  be  attributed  to  reli 
gious  opinions.  The  first  insurgents  groaned  under  severe 
oppressions,  and  took  up  arms  in  defence  of  their  civil 
liberties ;  and  of  these  commotions  the  Anabaptists  seem 
rather  to  have  availed  themselves,  than  to  have  been  the 
prime  movers.  That  a  great  part  were  Anabaptists  seems 
indisputable ;  at  the  same  time,  it  appears  from  history 
that  a  great  part  also  were  Roman  Catholics,  and  a  still 
greater  part  of  those  who  had  scarcely  any  religious  prin- 
cnles  at  all.  Indeed,  when  we  read  of  the  vast  number? 
that  were  concerned  in  these  insurrections,  of  whom  it  is 
reported  that  100,000  fell  by  the  sword,  it  appears  reason- 
able to  conclude  that  they  were  not  all  Anabaptists. 

It  is  but  justice  to  observe  also,  that  the  Baptists  of 
our  time  have  nothing  in  common  with  this  sect.  They 
profess  an  equal  aversion  to  all  principles  of  rebellion  on 
the  one  hand,  and  to  enthusiasm  on  the  other. 


ANTINOMIANS.  359 


ANTINOMIANS. 

ANTINOMIANS  are  those  who  maintain  that  the  law  is  of 
no  use  or  obligation  under  the  gospel  dispensation,  or  who 
held  doctrines  that  clearly  supersede  the  necessity  of  good 
•works.  The  Antinomians  took  their  name  from  John 
Agricola,  about  the  year  1538,  who  taught  that  the  law  is 
no  way  necessary  under  the  gospel ;  that  good  works  do 
not  promote  our  salvation,  nor  ill  ones  hinder  it ;  that  re- 
pentance is  not  to  be  preached  from  the  decalogue,  but 
only  from  the  gospel. 

This  sect  sprang  up  in  England  during  the  protectorate 
of  Cromwell,  and  extended  their  system  of  libertinism 
much  farther  than  Agricola  did.  Some  of  them,  it  is  said, 
maintained  that  if  they  should  commit  any  kind  of  sin,  it 
would  do  them  no  hurt,  nor  in  the  least  affect  their  eternal 
state ;  and  that  it  is  one  of  the  distinguishing  characters 
of  the  elect,  that  they  cannot  do  anything  displeasing  to 
God.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  observe  here,  and  can 
dor  obliges  us  to  confess,  that  there  have  been  others,  who 
have  been  styled  Antinomians,  who  cannot,  strictly  speak- 
ing, be  ranked  with  these  men ;  nevertheless,  the  unguarded 
expressions  they  have  advanced,  the  bold  positions  they 
have  laid  down,  and  the  double  construction  which  might 
BO  easily  be  put  upon  many  of  their  sentences,  have  led 
some  to  charge  them  with  Antinomian  principles. 

For  instance,  when  they  have  asserted  justification  to  be 
eternal,  without  distinguishing  between  the  secret  determi- 
nation of  God  in  eternity  and  the  execution  of  it  in  time; 
when  they  have  spoken  lightly  of  good  works,  or  asserted 
that  believers  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  law  of  God. 


36U  JUMPERS. 

without  fully  explaining  what  they  mpan ;  when  they  as- 
Bert  that  God  is  not  angry  with  his  people  for  their  sins, 
nor  in  any  sense  punishes  them  for  them,  without  distin- 
guishing between  fatherly  correction  and  vindictive  punish- 
ment ;  these  things,  whatever  be  the  private  sentiments  of 
those  who  advance  them,  have  a  tendency  to  injure  the 
minds  of  many.  It  has  been  alleged  that  the  principal 
thing  they  have  had  in  view  was  to  counteract  those  legal 
doctrines  which  have  so  much  abounded  among  the  self- 
righteous  ;  but  granting  this  to  be  true,  there  is  no  occa- 
sion to  run  from  one  extreme  to  another.  Had  many  of 
those  writers  proceeded  with  more  caution,  been  less  dog- 
matical, more  explicit  in  the  explanation  of  their  senti- 
ments, and  possessed  more  candor  towards  those  who  dif- 
fered from  them,  they  would  have  been  more  serviceable 
to  the  cause  of  truth  and  religion. 


JUMPERS. 

JUMPERS,  persons  so  called  from  the  practice  of  jumping 
during  the  time  allotted  for  religious  worship.  This  sin- 
gular practice  began,  it  is  said,  in  the  western  part  of 
Wales,  about  the  year  1760.  It  was  soon  after  defended 
by  Mr.  William  Williams,  (the  Welsh  poet,  as  he  is  some- 
times called,)  in  a  pamphlet,  which  was  patronized  by  the 
abettors  of  jumping  in  religious  assemblies.  Several  of 
the  more  zealous  itinerant  preachers  encouraged  the  people 
to  cry  out  yogoniant  (the  Welsh  word  for  glory,)  amen.  &c., 
&c. ;  to  put  themselves  in  violent  agitations  ;  and,  finally, 
to  jump  until  they  were  quite  exhausted,  so  as  often  to  be 
obliged  to  fall  down  on  the  floor  or  field,  where  this  kind 
of  worship  was  held. 


LABADISTS.  361 


LABADTSTS. 

THE  Labadists  were  so  called  from  their  founder,  John 
Labadie,  a  native  of  France.  He  was  originally  in  the 
Romish  communion ;  but  leaving  that,  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  reformed  church,  and  performed  with  reputation 
the  ministerial  functions  in  France,  Switzerland,  and  Hol- 
land. He  at  length  erected  a  new  community,  which 
resided  successively  at  Middleburg,  in  Zealand,  Amster- 
dam, Hervorden,  and  at  Altona,  where  he  died  about  1674. 
After  his  death,  his  followers  removed  their  wandering 
community  to  Wiewert,  in  the  district  of  North  Holland, 
where  it  soon  fell  into  oblivion.  If  we  are  to  judge  of  the 
L;ibadists  by  their  own  account,  they  did  not  differ  from 
the  reformed  church  so  much  in  their  tenets  and  doctrines 
as  in  their  manners  and  rules  of  discipline ;  yet  it  seems 
that  Labadie  had  some  strange  notions.  Among  other 
things,  he  maintained  that  God  might  and  did,  on  certain 
occasions,  deceiveNmen ;  that  the  faithful  ought  to  have  all 
things  in  common  ;  that  there  is  no  subordination  or  dis- 
tinction of  rank  in  the  true  church ;  that  in  reading  the 
Scriptures  greater  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  internal 
inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit  than  to  the  words  of  the 
text ;  that  the  observation  of  Sunday  was  a  matter  of  in- 
difference ;  that  the  contemplative  life  is  a  state  of  grace 
and  union  with  God,  and  the  very  height  of  perfection. 

31 


362  MYSTICS 


MYSTIGS. 

MYSTICS,  a  sect  distinguished  by  their  professing  pure, 
jublime,  and  perfect  devotion,  with  an  entire  disinterested 
love  of  God,  free  from  all  selfish  considerations.  The 
authors  of  this  mystic  science,  which  sprung  up  towards 
the  close  of  the  third  century,  are  not  known  ;  but  the 
principles  from  which  it  was  formed  are  manifest.  Its 
first  promoters  proceeded  from  the  known  doctrine  of  the 
Platonic  school,  which  was  also  adopted  by  Origen  and 
his  disciples,  that  the  divine  nature  was  diffused  through 
all  human  souls  ;  or  that  the  faculty  of  reason,  from  which 
proceed  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  mind,  was  an  emana- 
tion from  God  into  the  human  soul,  and  comprehended  in 
it  the  principles  and  elements  of  all  truth,  human  and 
divine.  They  denied  that  men  could,  by  labor  or  study, 
excite  this  celestial  flame  in  their  breasts ;  and  therefore 
they  disapproved  highly  of  the  attempts  of  those  who,  by 
definitions,  abstract  theorems,  and  profound  speculations, 
endeavored  to  form  distinct  notions  of 'truth,  and  to  dis- 
cover its  hidden  nature. 

On  the  contrary,  they  maintained  that  silence,  tranquil- 
lity, repose,  and  solitude,  accompanied  with  such  acts  as 
might  tend  to  extenuate  and  exhaust  the  body,  were  the 
means  by  which  the  hidden  and  internal  word  was  excited 
to  produce  its  latent  virtues,  and  to  instruct  men  in  the 
knowledge  of  divine  things.  For  thus  they  reasoned  :  — 
Those  who  behold  with  a  noble  contempt  all  human  affair?  ; 
who  turn  away  their  eyes  from  terrestrial  vanities,  and 
shut  all  the  avenues  of  the  outward  senses  against  the  con- 
tagious influences  of  a  material  world,  must  necessarily 
return  to  God  when  the  spirit  is  thus  disengaged  from  the 


MYSTICS.  363 

impediments  that  prevented  that  happy  union  ;  and  in  this 
blessed  frame  they  not  only  enjoy  inexpressible  raptures 
from  their  communion  with  the  Supreme  Being,  hut  are 
also  invested  witk  the  inestimable  privilege  of  contemplating 
truth  undisguised  and  uncorrupted  in  its  native  purity, 
while  others  behold  it  in  a  vitiated  and  delusive  form. 

The  number  of  the  Mystics  increased  in  the  fourth 
century,  under  the  influence  of  the  Grecian  fanatic,  who 
gave  himself  out  for  Dionysius,  the  Areopagite  disciple  of 
St.  Paul,  and  probably  lived  about  this  period ;  and  by 
pretending  to  higher  degrees  of  perfection  than  other 
Christians,  and  practising  greater  austerity,  their  cause 
gained  ground,  especially  in  the  eastern  provinces,  in  the 
fifth  century. 

A  copy  of  the  pretended  works  of  Dionysius  was  sent 
by  Balbus  to  Le-wis  the  Meek,  in  the  year  824,  which 
kindled  the  oily  flame  of  mysticism  in  the  western  pro- 
vinces, and  filled  the  Latins  with  ,  the  most  enthusiastic 
admiration  of  this  new  religion.  In  the  twelfth  century 
these  Mystics  took  the  lead  in  their  method  of  expounding 
the  Scriptures.  In  the  thirteenth  century  they  were  the 
most  formidable  antagonists  of  the  schoolmen ;  and,  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  fourteenth,  many  of  them  resided 
and  propagated  their  tenets  almost  in  every  part  of 
Europe.  They  had,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  many  per- 
sons of  distinguished  merit  in  their  number;  and  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  previous  to  the  Reformation,  if  any 
sparks  of  real  piety  subsisted  under  the  despotic  empire 
of  superstition,  they  were  only  to  be  found  among  the 
Mystics. 

The  celebrated  Madame  Bourignon,  and  tne  amiable 
Fenelon,  archbishop  of  Cambray,  were  of  this  sect.  Dr. 
Haweis,  in  speaking  of  the  Mystics,  Church  History,  vol. 
iii.  p.  47,  thus  observes :  "Among  those  called  Mystics,  I 


364 


MYSTICS. 


am  persuaded  some  were  found  who  loved  God  out  of  a 
pure  heart  fervently ;  and  though  they  were  ridiculed  and 
reviled  for  proposing  a  disinterestedness  of  love  without 
other  motives,  and  as  professing  to  feel  in  the  enjoyment 
of  the  temper  itself  an  abundant  reward,  their  holy  and 
heavenly  conversation  will  carry  a  stamp  of  real  religion 
upon  it." 

As  the  late  Rev.  William  Law,  who  was  born  in  1687, 
makes  a  distinguished  figure  among  the  modern  Mystics, 
a  brief  account  of  the  outlines  of  his  system  may,  perhaps, 
be  entertaining  to  some  readers.  He  supposed  that  the 
material  world  was  the  very  region  which  originally 
belonged  to  the  fallen  angels.  At  length  the  light  and 
spirit  of  God  entered  into  the  chaos,  and  turned  the 
angels'  ruined  kingdom  into  a  paradise  on  earth.  God 
then  created  man,  and  placed  him  there.  He  was  made 
in  the  image  of  the  triune  God,  a  living  mirror  of  the 
divine  nature,  formed  to  enjoy  communion  with  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  and  live  on  earth  as  the  angels  do 
in  heaven.  He  was  endowed  with  immortality,  so  that 
the  elements  of  this  outward  world  could  not  have  any 
power  of  acting  on  his  body ;  but  by  his  fall  he  changed 
the  light,  life,  and  spirit  of  God  for  the  light,  life,  and 
spirit  of  the  world.  He  died  the  very  day  of  his  trans- 
gression to  all  the  influences  and  operations  of  the  Spirit 
of  God  upon  him,  as  we  die  to  the  influences  of  this  world 
when  the  soul  leaves  the  body;  and  all  the  influences  and 
operations  of  the  elements  of  this  life  were  open  in  him, 
as  they  were  in  any  animal,  at  his  birth  into  this  world ; 
he  became  an  earthly  creature,  subject  to  the  dominion  of 
this  outward  world,  and  stood  only  in  the  highest  rank  of 
animals.  But  the  goodness  o£  God  would  not  leave  man 
in  this  condition;  redemption  from  it  was  immediately 
granted,  and  the  bruiser  of  the  serpent  brought  the  light, 


ABYSSINIAN    CHURCH.  365 

life,  and  spirit  of  heaven,  once  more  into  the  human  nature 
All  men,  in  consequence  of  the  redemption  of  Christ,  have 
in  them  the  first  spark,  or  seed,  of  the  divine  life,  as  a 
treasure  hid  in  the  centre  of  our  souls,  to  bring  forth,  by 
degrees,  a  new  birth  of  that  life  which  was  lost  in  Paradise. 
No  son  of  Adam  can  be  lost,  only  by  turning  away  from 
the  Saviour  within  him.  The  only  religion  which  can  save 
us,  must  be  that  which  can  raise  the  light,  life,  and  Spirit 
of  God  in  our  souls.  Nothing  can  enter  into  the  vegetable 
kingdom  till  it  have  the  vegetable  life  in  it,  or  be  a  member 
of  the  animal  kingdom  till  it  have  the  animal  life.  Thus 
all  nature  joins  with  the  Gospel  in  affirming  that  no  man 
can  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven  till  the  heavenly  life 
is  born  in  him.  Nothing  can  be  our  righteousness  or 
recovery  but  the  divine  nature  of  Jesus  Christ  derived  to 
our  souls. 


ABYSSINIAN   CHURCH, 

THAT  which  is  established  in  the  empire  of  Abyssinia. 
They  are  a  branch  of  the  Copts,  with  whom  they  agree 
in  admitting  only  one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ,  and  rejecting 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon ;  whence  they  are  also  called 
Monophysites  and  Eutychians. 

The  Abyssinian  Church  is  governed  by  a  Bishop,  styled 
Abuna.  They  have  canons  also,  and  monks.  The  em- 
peror has  a  kind  of  supremacy  in  ecclesiastical  matters. 
The  Abyssinians  have  at  divers  times  expressed  an  incli- 
nation tc  be  reconciled  to  the  see  of  Rome ;  but  rather 
from  interested  views  than  from  any  other  motive.  They 
practice  circumcision  on  females,  as  well  as  males.  They 
eat  no  meats  prohibited  by  the  law  of  Moses.  They  ob- 

3J* 


366  ADAMITES. 

serve  both  Saturday  and  Sunday  sabbaths.  Women  ->re 
obliged  to  the  legal  purifications.  Brothers  marry  their 
brother's  wives,  &c. 

On  the  other  hand  ihey  celebrate  the  Ej  iphany  with 
peculiar  festivity ;  have  four  Lents ;  pray  for  the  dead ; 
and  invoke  angels.  Images  in  painting  they  venerate, 
but  abhor  all  those  in  relievo,  except  the  cross.  They 
admit  the  apocryphal  books  and  the  canons  of  the  apostles, 
as  well  as  the  apostolical  constitutions,  for  genuine.  They 
allow  of  divorce,  which  is  easily  granted  among  them,  and 
by  the  civil  Judge;  nor  do  their  civil  laws  prohibit  p"ly- 
gamy.  They  have,  at  least,  as  many  miracles  and  legends 
of  saints  as  the  Romish  Church.  They  hold  that  the  soul 
of  man  is  not  created ;  because,  say  they,  God  finished  all 
his  works  on  the  sixth  day. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  doctrines  and  ritual  of  this  sect 
form  a  strange  compound  of  Judaism  and  Christianity, 
ignorance  and  superstition.  Some,  indeed,  have  been  at  a 
loss  to  know  whether  they  are  most  Christians  or  Jews ;  it 
is  to  be  feared,  however,  that  there  is  little  beside  the 
name  of  Christianity  among  them. 


ADAMITES, 

A  SECT  that  sprang  up  in  the  second  century.  Epiphaniua 
tells  us  that  they  were  called  Adamites  from  their  pretend- 
ing to  be  re-established  in  the  state  of  innocence,  such  aa 
Adam  was  at  the  moment  of  his  creation,  whence  they 
ought  to  imitate  him  in  going  naked.  They  detested  mar- 
riage ;  maintaining  that  the  conjugal  union  would  never 
have  taken  place  upon  earth  had  sin  been  unknown.  This 
obscure  and  ridiculous  sect  di-i  not  last  long.  It  was, 


ALBIGENSES. 


307 


however,  revived  with  additional  absurdities,  in  the  twelfth 
century.  About  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
these  errors  spread  in  Germany  and  Bohemia ;  it  found 
also  some  partisans  in  Poland,  Holland,  and  England. 
They  assembled  in  the  night ;  and,  it  is  said,  one  of  the 
fundamental  maxims  of  their  society  was  contained  in  the 
following  verse : 

Jura,  perjura,  secretum  prodere  noli. 
Swear,  forswear,  and  reveal  not  the  secret. 


ALBIGENSES. 

ALBIGENSES  (Albigeois) ;  a  name  common  to  several 
sects,  particularly  the  Cathari  and  Waldenses,  who  agreed 
in  opposing  the  dominion  of  the  Roman  hierarchy,  and 
endeavoring  to  restore  the  simplicity  of  primitive  Chris- 
tianity. They  had  increased  very  much  towards  the  close 
of  the  twelfth  century,  in  the  south  of  France,  about  Tou- 
louse and  Albi,  and  were  denominated  by  the  crusaders 
Albigenses  from  the  district  Albigeois  (territory  of  Albi), 
where  the  army  of  the  cross,  called  together  by  Pope 
Innocent  III.,  attacked  them  in  1209.  The  assassination 
of  the  papal  legate  and  inquisitor,  Peter  of  Castelriau, 
while  occupied  in  extirpating  these  heretics  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Count  Raymond  of  Toulouse,  occasioned  this 
war,  which  is  important  as  the  first  which  the  Romish 
Church  waged  against  heretics  within  her  own  dominions. 
It  was  carried  on  with  a  degree  of  cruelty  which  cast  a 
deep  shade  over  the  Roman  clergy,  as  their  real  object 
appeared  to  be  to  'deprive  the  Count  of  Toulouse  of  his 
y  possessions,  on  account  of  his  tolerating  the  heretics.  It 
was  in  vain  that  this  powerful  prince  had  suffered  a  dis- 


368  ALBIGENSES. 

graceful  penance  and  flagellation  from  the  legate  Milo,  and 
obtained  the  papal  absolution  by  great  sacrifices.  The 
legates,  Arnold,  Abbot  of  Citaaux,  and  Milo,  took  Beziers, 
the  capital  of  his  nephew  Roger,  by  storm,  and  put  all  the 
inhabitants  (about  60,000),  without  any  distinction  of 
creed,  to  the  sword.  Simon  de  Montfort,  the  military 
leader  of  the  crusade,  under  the  legates,  was  equally  se- 
vere towards  other  places  in  the  territory  of  Raymond  and 
his  allies,  of  whom  Roger  died  in  a  prison,  and  Peter  I., 
king  of  Arragon,  in  battle.  The  lands  taken  were  pre- 
sented by  the  Church,  as  a  reward  for  his  services,  to  the 
Count  of  Montfort,  who,  however,  on  account  of  the 
changing  fortune  of  war,  never  obtained  the  quiet  posses- 
sion of  them ;  he  was  killed  by  a  stone,  at  the  siege  of 
Toulouse,  in  1218.  The  legates  prevailed  on  his  son 
Amalric  to  cede  his  claims  to  the  king  of  France.  The 
papal  indulgences  attracted  from  all  provinces  of  France 
new  crusaders,  who  continued  the  war,  and,  even  after 
the  death  of  Raymond  VI.,  in  1222,  under  excommunica- 
tion, his  son,  Raymond  VII.,  was  obliged,  notwithstanding 
his  readiness  to  do  penance,  to  defend  his  inheritance  till 
1229  against  the  legates  and  Louis  VIII.  of  France,  who 
fell,  in  1226,  in  a  campaign  against  the  heretics.  After 
hundreds  of  thousands  had  fallen  on  both  sides,  and  the 
most  beautiful  parts  of  Provence  and  Upper  Languedoc  had 
been  laid  waste,  a  peace  was  made,  by  the  terms  of  which 
Raymond  was  obliged  to  purchase  his  absolution  with  a  large 
sum  of  money,  to  cede  Narbonne,  with  several  estates,  to 
Louis  IX.,  and  make  his  son-in-law,  a  brother  of  Louis,  heir 
of  his  other  lands.  The  pope  suffered  these  provinces  to 
come  into  the  possession  of  the  king  of  France,  in  order 
to  bind  him  more  firmly  to  his  interests,  and  force  him  to 
receive  his  inquisitors.  The  heretics  were  now  delivered 
up  to  the  proselyting  zeal  of  the  Dominicans,  and  to  the 


PANTHEISTS.  369 

courts  of  the  inquisition ;  and  these  new  auxiliaries,  which 
priestcraft  had  acquired  during  the  war,  employed  their 
whole  power  to  bring  the  remainder  of  the  Albigenses  to 
the  stake,  and  made  even  the  converts  feel  the  irrecon- 
cilable anger  of  the  Church,  by  heavy  fines  and  personal 
punishments.  The  name  of  the  Albigenses  disappeared 
after  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century ;  but  fugitives 
of  their  party  formed,  in  the  mountains  of  Piedmont  and 
in  Lombardy,  what  is  called  the  French  Church,  which  was 
continued  through  the  Waldenses,  to  the  times  of  the 
Hussites  and  the  Reformation. 


PANTHEISTS. 

PANTHEISM,  a  philosophical  species  of  idolatry,  leading 
to  atheism,  in  which  the  universe  was  considered  as  the 
Supreme  God.  Who  was  the  inventor  of  this  absurd  sys- 
tem, is  perhaps  not  known,  but  it  was  of  early  origin,  and 
differently  modified  by  different  philosophers.  Some  held 
the  universe  to  be  one  immense  animal,  of  which  the  incor 
poreal  soul  was  properly  their  god,  and  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  the  body  of  that  god ;  whilst  others  held  but  one 
substance,  partly  active,  and  partly  passive,  and  therefore 
looked  upon  the  visible  universe  as  the  only  Numen.  The 
earliest  Grecian  pantheists  of  whom  we  read  was  Orpheus, 
who  called  the  world  the  body  of  6rod,  and  its  several  parts 
his  members,  making  the  whole  universe  one  divine  animal. 
According  to  Cud  worth,  Orpheus  and  his  followers  believed 
in  the  immaterial  soul  of  the  world :  therein  agreeing  with 
Aristotle,  who  certainly  held  that  God  and  matter  are  co- 
eterna" :  and  that  there  is  some  such  union  betwoen  them, 

Y 


370  SECOND    ADVENTISTS. 

as  subsists  between  the  souls  and  bodies  of  men.  An  in 
stimtion,  embodying  sentiments  nearly  of  this  kind,  was 
set  on  foot  early  in  the  last  century,  in  England,  by 
a  society  of  philosophical  idolaters,  who  called  themselves 
Pantheists,  because  they  professed  the  worship  of  All  Na- 
ture as  their  deity.  They  had  Mr.  John  Toland  for  their 
secretary  and  chaplain.  Their  liturgy  was  in  Latin ;  an 
English  translation  was  published  in  1751,  from  which  the 
following  sentiments  are  extracted :  "  The  ethereal  fire  en- 
virons all  things,  and  is  therefore  supreme.  The  aether  ia 
a  reviving  fire :  it  rules  all  things,  it  disposes  ;»1I  things. 
In  it  is  soul,  mind,  prudence.  This  fire  is  Hoi  ace's  par- 
ticle of  divine  breath,  and  Virgil's  inwardly  nourishing 
spirit.  All  things  are  comprised  in  an  intelligent  nature." 
This  force  they  call  the  soul  of  the  world ;  as  also,  a  mind 
of  perfect  wisdom,  and,  consequently,  God.  Vanini,  the 
Italian  philosopher,  was  nearly  of  this  opinion :  bin  god  wag 
nature.  Some  very  learned  and  excellent  remarks  are  made 
on  this  error  by  Mr.  Boyle,  in  his  discourse  on  the  vulgarly 
received  notion  of  nature. 


SECOND    ADYENTISTS. 

SECOND  ADVENTISTS:  (sometimes  called  MILLERITES 
and  MILLENNARIANS,)  those  who  hold,  in  opposition  to 
the  general  opinion,  that  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ  will 
jyrecede  the  Millennium,  and  is  necessary  to  introduce  it. 
On  the  nature  of  the  Millennium,  its  antecedents,  conse- 
quences, and  the  signs  of  its  approach,  they  differ  widely 
among  themselves ;  but  they  all  agree  that  it  will  be  ushered 
in  by  the  Second  Advent  of  the  Son  of  God,  and  bo  dis 


SECOND    ADVENTISTS.  37] 

tinguished  as  the  period  of  his  personal  reign  on  the 
earth.  Some  go  so  far  as  to  fix  the  time ;  but  others 
content  themselves  with  saying  that  it  is  at  the  door. 

This  pre-millennial  view  of  the  Second  Advent  is  there- 
fore  the  characteristic  mark  of  this  denomination, 
although  they  seldom  are  embodied  as  a  distinct  sect,  but 
are  found  in  all  denominations,  more  or  less. 

They  strenuously  contend  that  their  view  rests  upon 
the  literal  interpretation  of  the  prophecies;  that  it  was 
the  general  belief  of  the  earliest  Christians,  and  forms  an 
essential  and  powerful  element  of  practical  Christianity. 
They  insist  that  the  ordinary  view  of  the  Millennium  as 
a  spiritual  reign  of  righteousness  and  peace,  preceding  the 
personal  coming  of  Christ,  and  followed  by  a  brief  but 
terrible  Apostacy,  which  calls  down  the  Son  of  God  to 
judgment  (Rev.  xx.),  is  of  modern  date;  that  it  unsettles 
the  principles  of  interpretation,  and  deadens  the  spiritual 
life  of  believers. 

It  is  but  just  to  say  that  all  these  arguments  have  been 
soberly  met  and  acutely  answered  by  some  of  the  ablest 
writers  on  Prophecy,  particularly  by  Dr.  Brown  of  Edin- 
burgh. 

In  the  last  century  Dr.  John  Gill  and  Rev.  A.  M.  Top- 
lady  advocated  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  personal  reign. 
Bishop  Newton  does  not  go  so  far  as  to  give  an  opinion, 
while  President  Ed  wards,  Archibald  McLean,  and  Andrew 
Fuller,  after  long  investigation,  decided  in  favor  of  the 
spiritual  reign  of  Christ  in  the  Millennium.  Mr.  Fuller'? 
last  thoughts  on  this  subject  were  written  within  a  few 
months  of  his  death. 

Since  that  time  Rev.  Edward  Irving,  Dr.  Gumming, 
George  Gilfillan.  Mr.  Bickersteth,  and  other  clergymen  of 
the  Church  of  England,  have  revived  the  doctrine  of  the 
Prernillennial  Advent  abroad.  In  this  country  it  has 


272  SECOND    ADVENTISTS. 

found  many  zealous  and  able  advocates,  among  whom  we 
may  name  William  Miller,  H.  L.  Hastings,  and  D.  T. 
Taylor.  Men  of  standing  and  scholarship  iu  evangelical 
denominations,  are  found  maintaining  substantially  the 
same  views  of  the  Second  Advent,  unmixed  with  the 
errors  and  extravagance  charged  upon  those  previously 
named.  Dr.  Lord  of  New  York,  and  Drs.  Seiss,  Newton, 
Duffield  and  others  of  Philadelphia,  have  long  sustained 
this  doctrine  through  the  periodical  press.  The  last 
named  gentlemen,  in  the  first  issue  of  their  work  (Jan. 
1863),  drew  out  astatement  of  their  belief  in  twelve  prop- 
ositions, and  in  the  fourth  number  (April  1863),  one  of 
the  editors  gave  a  more  formal  and  elaborate  Theory  of 
the  Millennium.  Our  space  will  not  permit  us  to  intro- 
duce them  here,  though  in  all  our  previous  statements 
we  have  kept  them  in  view. 

The  only  point  of  real  difference  between  the  Second 
Adventists  and  their  opponents — the  main  pivot  on  which 
every  thing  turns — is  this:  Will  the  future  Personal 
Advent  of  Christ — that  blessed  hope  so  often  set  before 
us  in  the  Scriptures — precede,  or  follow  the  promised 
Millennium  ? 

Both  parties  equally  believe  in  the  certainty  and  glory 
of  the  Second  Advent  of  Christ  in  person  to  judge  the 
world,  all  representations  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 
All  alike  expect  it,  but  in  different  time,  order,  and  effects. 
It  is  a  pure  question  of  Biblical  Interpretation.  The 
question  involves,  in  all  its  extent,  the  complete  compass 
and  harmony  of  the  Prophecies  of  Scripture,  which,  pro- 
ceeding from  one  Omniscient  Mind,  can  never  conflict  in 
meaning  when  properly  understood.  It  is  not  probable 
that  a  matter  of  this  high  and  solemn  moment  has  really 
been  left  in  darkness.  The  clearness  of  Divine  Eeve- 
lation  is  usually  iu  proportion  to  its  importance  to 


SOCINIANS.  373 

mankind.  Bat  of  the  day  and  hour  of  the  Second  Advent, 
Christ  himself  assures  us  no  man  knoweth.  It  is  not  a 
thing  revealed,  or  to  be  ascertained  by  any  searching  of 
the  Scriptures.  It  is  purposely  kept  secret,  that  all 
may  watch ;  yet  it  will  come  at  last  as  a  snare,  suddenly 
and  unexpectedly,  to  the  men  of  the  latest  generation; 
the  scoffers  of  the  last  days.  Matt,  xxiv.  36-51.  Luke 
xviii.  8.  1  Thess.  v.  1-6.  2  Pet.  iii.  1-  12.  Eev.  xx. 
7-15 


SOCINIANS. 

THE  Socinians  are  so  called  from  Faustus  Socinus,  "who 
died  in  Poland  in  1604.  There  were  two  who  bore  the 
name  Socinus,  uncle  and  nephew,  and  both  disseminated 
the  same  doctrine ;  but  it  is  the  nephew  who  is  generally 
considered  as  the  founder  of  this  sect.  They  maintain 
"  that  Jesus  Christ  was  a  mere  man,  who  had  no  existence 
before  he  was  conceived  by  the  Virgin  Mary;  that  tho 
Holy  Ghost  is  no  distinct  person  ;  but  that  the  Father  is 
truly  and  properly  God.  They  own  that  the  name  of  God 
is  given  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  to  Jesus  Christ,  but  con- 
tend that  it  is  only  a  deputed  title,  which,  however,  investa 
him  with  a  great  authority  over  all  created  beings.  They 
deny  the  doctrines  of  satisfaction  and  imputed  righteous- 
ness, and  say  that  Christ  only  preached  the  truth  to  man- 
kind, set  before  them  in  himself  an  example  of  heroic 
virtue,  and  sealed  his  doctrines  with  his  blood.  Original 
sin  and  absolute  predestination  they  esteem  scholastic  chi- 
meras. Some  of  them  likewise  maintain  the  sleep  of  tho 

32 


374  SOCINIANS. 

soul,  which,  they  say,  becomes  insensible  at  death,  and  is 
raised  again  with  the  body  at  the  resurrection,  when  the 
good  shall  be  established  in  the  possession  of  eternal  feli- 
city, while  the  wicked  shall  be  consigned  to  a  fire  that  will 
not  torment  them  eternally,  but  for  a  certain  duration  pro- 
portioned to  their  demerits." 

There  is  some  difference,  however,  between  ancient  and 
modern  Socinians.  The  latter,  indignant  at  the  name 
Socinian,  have  appropriated  to  themselves  that  of  Unita- 
rians, and  reject  the  notions  of  a  miraculous  conception 
and  the  worship  of  Christ ;  both  which  were  held  by  Soci- 
nus.  Dr.  Priestley  has  labored  hard  in  attempting  to  de- 
fend this  doctrine  of  the  Unitarians ;  but  Dr.  Horsley, 
Bishop  of  Rochester,  has  ably  refuted  the  doctor  in  hia 
Theological  Tracts,  which  are  worthy  the  perusal  of  every 
Christian,  and  especially  every  candidate  for  the  ministry. 

Dr.  Price  agreed  with  the  Socinians  in  the  main,  yet  his 
system  was  somewhat  different.  He  believed  in  the  pre- 
existence  of  Christ,  and  likewise  that  he  was  more  than  a 
human  being;  and  took  upon  him  human  nature  for  a 
higher  purpose  than  merely  revealing  to  mankind  the  will 
of  God,  and  instructing  them  in  their  duty  and  in  the  doc- 
trines of  religion. 

The  Sociaians  flourished  greatly  in  Poland  about  the 
year  1551 ;  and  J.  Siemienius,  palatine  of  Podolia,  built 
purposely  for  their  use  the  city  of  Racow.  A  famous 
catechism  was  published,  called  the  Racovian  Catechism^ 
and  their  most  able  writers  are  known  by  the  title  of  the 
Polones  Fratres,  or  Polonian  Brethren.  Their  writings 
were  republished  together,  in  the  year  1656,  in  one  great 
collection,  consisting  of  six  volumes  in  folio,  under  the  title 
of  Bibliotheca  Fratrum. 


SANDEMANIANS.  375 


SANDEMANIANS. 

THE  Sandemanians  are  a  sect  that  originated  in  Scot- 
land about  the  year  1728,  where  it  is,  at  this  time,  distin- 
gue hed  by  the  name  of  Glassites,  after  its  founder,  Mr. 
Job  a  Glass,  who  Mas  a  minister  of  the  established  church 
in  that  kingdom  ;  but,  being  charged  with  a  design  of  sub- 
vering  the  national  covenant,  and  sapping  the. foundation 
of  ill  national  establishments,  by  maintaining  that  the 
kit  fdom  of  Christ  is  not  of  this  world,  was  expelled  from 
the  synod  by  the  Church  of  Scotland.  His  sentiments 
are  fully  explained  in  a  tract,  published  at  that  time,  enti- 
tled "The  Testimony  of  the  King  of  Martyrs,"  and  pre- 
ser\  ed  in  the  first  volume  of  his  works.  In  consequence 
of  1  tr.  Glass'  expulsion,  his  adherents  formed  themselves 
into  churches,  conformable,  in  their  institution  and  disci- 
plin  ;,  to  what  they  apprehended  to  be  the  plan  of  the  first 
chui  ches  recorded  in  the  New  Testament.  Soon  after  the 
yeai  1755,  Mr.  Robert  Sandeman,  an  elder  in  one  of  these 
chur  ;hes  in  Scotland,  published  a  series  of  letters  addressed 
to  Mr.  Hervey,  occasioned  by  his  Theron  and  Aspasia,  in 
which  he  endeavors  to  show  that  his  notion  of  faith  is  con- 
tradictory to  the  Scripture  account  of  it,  and  could  only 
jerve  to  lead  men,  professedly  holding  the  doctrines  called 
Calvinistic,  to  establish  their  own  righteousness  upon  their 
frames,  feelings,  and  acts  of  faith.  In  these  letters  Mr. 
Sandeman  attempts  to  prove  that  justifying  faith  is  no 
more  than  a  simple  belief  of  the  truth,  or  the  divine  testi- 
mony passively  received  by  the  understanding ;  and  that 
thia  divine  testimony  carries  in  itself  sufficient  ground  of 
hope  to  every  one  who  believes  it.  without  anything 


376  SANDEMANIANS. 

wrought  In  us,  or  done  by  us,  to  give  it  a  particular  direc 
tion  to  ourselves. 

Some  of  the  popular  preachers,  as  they  were  called,  had 
taught  that  it  was  of  the  essence  of  faith  to  believe  that 
Christ  is  ours ;  but  Mr.  Sandeman  contended  that  thai 
which  is  believed  in  true  faith  is  the  truth,  and  what  would 
have  been  the  truth,  though  we  had  never  believed  it. 
They  dealt  largely  in  calls  and  invitations  to  repent  and 
believe  in  Christ  in  order  to  forgiveness ;  but  he  rejects 
the  whole  of  them,  maintaining  that  the  gospel  contained 
no  offer  but  that  of  evidence,  and  that  it  was  merely  a 
record  or  testimony  to  be  credited.  They  had  taught  that 
though  acceptance  with  God,  which  included  the  forgive- 
ness of  sins,  was  merely  on  account  of  the  imputed  right- 
eousness of  Christ,  yet  that  no  one  was  accepted  of  God, 
nor  forgiven,  till  he  repented  of  his  sin,  and  received 
Christ  as  the  only  Saviour ;  but  he  insists  that  there  is 
acceptance  with  God  through  Christ  for  sinners,  while 
such,  or  before  "any  act,  exercise,  or  exertion  of  their 
minds  whatsoever ;"  consequently  before  repentance  ;  and 
that  "  a  passive  belief  of  this  quiets  the  guilty  conscience, 
begets  hope,  and  so  lays  the  foundation  for  love."  It  is 
by  this  passive  belief  of  the  truth  that  we,  according  to 
Mr.  Sandeman,  are  justified,  and  that  boasting  is  excluded. 
If  any  act,  exercise,  or  exertion  of  the  mind  were  neces- 
sary to  our  being  accepted  of  God,  he  conceives  there 
would  be  whereof  to  glory  ;  and  justification  by  faith  could 
not  be  opposed,  as  it  is  in  Rom.  iv.  4,  6,  to  justification  by 
works. 

The  authors  to  whom  Mr.  Sandeman  refers,  under  the 
title  of  "  popular  preachers,"  are  Flavel,  Boston,  Guthrie, 
the  Erskines,  etc.,  whom  he  has  treated  with  acrimony  and 
contempt.  "I  would  be  far,"  says  he,  "from  refusing 
even  to  the  popular  preachers  themselves  what  they  so 


SANDEMANTANS.  377 

much  grudge  to  others — the  benefit  of  the  one  instance  of 
a  hardened  sinner  finding  mercy  at  last ;  for  I  know  of  no 
sinners  more  hardened,  none  greater  destroyers  of  man- 
kind, than  they."  There  have  not  been  wanting  writers, 
however,  who  have  vindicated  these  ministers  from  his  in 
rectives  and  have  endeavored  to  show  that  Mr.  Sandeman's 
notion  of  faith,  by  excluding  all  exercise  or  concurrence 
of  the  will  with  the  gospel  way  of  salvation,  confounds 
the  faith  of  devils  with  that  of  Christians,  and  so  is  calcu- 
lated to  deceive  the  souls  cf  men.  It  has  also  been  ob- 
served, that  though  Mr.  Sandomau  admits  of  the  acts  of 
faith  and  love  as  fruits  of  believing  the  truth,  yet,  "  all  his 
godliness  consisting  (as  he  acknowledges  to  Mr.  Pike)  in 
love  to  that  which  first  relieved  Tiim"  it  amounts  to  nothing 
but  self-love.  And  as  self-love  is  a  stranger  to  all  those 
strong  affections  expressed  in  the  109th  Psalm  towards  the 
law  of  God,  he  cannot  admit  of  them  as  the  language  of  a 
good  man,  but  applies  the  whole  psalm  to  Christ,  though 
the  person  speaking  acknowledges  that  "  before  he  was 
afflicted,  he  went  astray."  Others  have  thought  that  from 
the  same  principle  it  were  easy  to  account  for  the  bitter- 
ness, pride,  and  contempt  which  distinguish  the  system ; 
for  self-love,  say  they,  is  consistent  with  the  greatest  aver 
sion  to  all  beings  divine  or  human,  excepting  so  far  as  they 
become  subservient  to  us. 

The  chief  opinion  and  practices  in  which  this  sect  differs 
from  other  Christians,  are  their  weekly  administration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper ;  their  love  feasts,  of  which  every  mem- 
ber is  not  only  allowed  but  required  to  partake,  and  which 
consist  of  their  dining  together  at  each  other's  houses  in 
the  interval  between  the  morning  and  afternoon  service. 
Their  kiss  of  charity  used  on  this  occasion  at  the  admis 
sion  of  a  new  member,  and  at  other  times  when  they  deem 
it  necessary  and  proper;  their  weekly  collection  before 

32« 


SANDEMANIANS. 

the  Lord's  Supper,  for  the  support  of  the  poor,  and  de- 
fraying other  expenses ;  mutual  exhortation ;  abstinence 
from  blood  and  things  strangled ;  washing  each  other's 
feet,  when,  as  a  deed  of  mercy,  it  might  be  an  expression 
of  love,  the  precept  concerning  which,  as  well  as  other 
precepts,  they  understand  literally ;  community  of  goods, 
so  far  as  that  every  one  is  to  consider  all  that  he  has  in 
his  possession  and  power  liable  to  the  calls  of  the  poor  and 
the  church ;  and  the  unlawfulness  of  laying  up  treasures 
upon  earth,  by  setting  them  apart  for  any  distant,  future, 
and  uncertain  use.  They  allow  of  public  and  private  di- 
versions, so  far  as  they  are  unconnected  with  circumstances 
really  sinful ;  but  apprehending  a  lot  to  be  sacred,  disap- 
prove of  lotteries,  playing  at  cards,  dice,  etc. 

They  maintain  a  plurality  of  elders,  pastors  or  bishops, 
In  each  church ;  and  the  necessity  of  the  presence  of  two 
elders  in  every  act  of  discipline,  and  at  the  administration 
of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

In  the  choice  of  these  elders,  want  of  learning,  and 
engagement  in  trade,  are  no  sufficient  objection,  if  quali- 
fied according  to  the  instructions  given  to  Timothy  and 
Titus ;  but  second  marriages  disqualify  for  the  office ;  and 
they  are  ordained  by  prayer  and  fasting,  imposition  of 
hands,  and  giving  the  right  hand  of  fellowship. 

In  their  discipline  they  are  strict  and  severe,  and  think 
themselves  obliged  to  separate  from  the  communion  and 
worship  of  all  such  religious  societies  as  appear  to  them 
not  to  profess  the  simple  truth  for  their  only  ground  of 
hope,  and  who  do  not  walk  in  obedience  to  it.  We  shall 
only  add,  that  in  every  transaction  they  esteem  unanimity 
to  be  absolutely  necessary. 

In  the  year  1764,  Mr.  Sandeman,  having  accepted  an 
invitation  from  some  persons  in  America,  who  had  read 
his  writings  and  professed  a  strong  attachment  to  them,  to 


NECESSARIANS.  379 

come  and  settle  among  them,  sailed  for  New  England 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  much  disappointed 
in  the  persons  who  had  invited  him  over,  and  in  the  expec- 
tations he  had  formed  generally  respecting  America. 
Dissensions  began  to  arise,  soon  after  his  arrival,  between 
the  colonies  and  mother  country.  Mr.  Sandeman's  prin- 
ciples led  him  to  avow  the  most  implicit  allegiance  to  the 
latter,  which  rendered  him  obnoxious  to  the  colonists ;  his 
days  were  imbittered ;  his  prospects  of  usefulness  in  a 
great  measure  blighted ;  and,  after  collecting  a  few  small 
societies,  he  ended  his  life  at  Danbury,  in  Connecticut, 
Fairfield  County,  in  the  year  1771.  Since  his  death, 
there  has  appeared  from  his  pen,  "  The  Honor  of  Mar- 
riage opposed  to  all  Impurities;"  "An  Essay  on  Solomon's 
Song ;"  "  On  the  Sign  of  the  Prophet  Jonah,"  etc.,  etc., 
all  of  which  may  be  read  with  profit. 


NECESSARIANS. 

NECESSARIANS,  an  appellation  which  may  be  given  to 
all  who  maintain  that  moral  agents  act  from  necessity. 

Necessity  signifies  whatever  is  done  by  a  cause  or 
power  that  is  irresistible,  in  which  sense  it  is  opposed  to 
freedom.  Man  is  a  necessary  agent,  if  all  his  actions  be 
so  determined  by  the  causes  preceding  each  action,  that 
not  one  past  action  could  possibly  not  have  come  to  pass, 
or  have  been  otherwise  than  it  hath  been,  nor  one  future 
action  can  possibly  not  come  to  pass,  or  be  otherwise  than 
it  shall  be.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  asserted  that  he  is  a 
free  agent,  if  he  be  able,  at  any  time,  under  the  causes 
and  circumstances  he  then  is,  to  do  different  things ;  or, 


380  NECESSARIANS. 

in  other  words,  if  he  be  not  unavoidably  determined  in 
every  point  of  time  by  the  circumstances  he  is  in,  and  th<* 
causes  he  is  under,  to  do  any  one  thing  he  does,  and  not 
possibly  to  do  any  other  thing.  Whether  man  is  a  neces- 
sary or  a  free  agent,  is  a  question  which  has  been  debated 
by  writers  of  the  first  eminence.  Hobbes,  Collins,  Hume, 
Leibnitz,  Kaims,  Hartley,  Priestley,  Edwards,  Crombie, 
Toplady,  and  Belsham,  have  written  on  the  side  of  neces- 
sity; while  Clarke,  King,  Law,  Reid,  Butler,  Price, 
Bryant,  Wollaston,  Horsley,  Beattie,  Gregory,  and  But- 
terworth,  have  written  against  it.  To  state  all  their  argu- 
ments in  this  place,  would  take  up  too  much  room ;  suffice 
it  to  say,  that  the  Anti-necessarians  suppose  that  the  doc- 
trine of  necessity  charges  God  as  the  author  of  sin ;  that 
it  takes  away  the  freedom  of  the  will,  renders  man  unac- 
countable, makes  sin  to  be  no  evil,  and  morality  or  virtue 
to  be  no  good ;  precludes  the  use  of  means,  and  is  of  the 
most  gloomy  tendency.  The  Necessarians  deny  these 
to  be  legitimate  consequences,  and  observe  that  the  Deity 
acts  no  more  immorally  in  decreeing  vicious  actions,  than 
in  permitting  all  those  irregularities,  which  he  could  so 
easily  have  prevented.  The  difficulty  is  the  same  on  each 
hypothesis.  All  necessity,  say  they,  doth  not  take  away 
freedom.  The  actions  of  a  man  may  be  at  one  and  the 
same  time  free  and  necessary  too.  It  was  infallibly  cer- 
tain that  Judas  would  betray  Christ,  yet  he  did  it  volun- 
tarily. Jesus  Christ  necessarily  became  a  man,  and  died. 
yet  he  acted  freely.  A  good  man  doth  naturally  and 
necessarily  love  his  children,  yet  voluntarily.  It  is  part 
of  the  happiness  of  the  blessed  to  love  God  unchangeably, 
yet  freely,  for  it  would  not  be  their  happiness  if  done  by 
compulsion.  N:>i  does  it,  says  the  Necessarian,  render 
man  unaccountable,  since  the  Divine  Being  does  no  injury 
to  his  rational  faculties;  and  man,  as  his  creature,  ia 


NECESSARIANS.  381 

answerable  to  him ;  besides,  he  has  a  right  to  do  what  he 
will  with  his  own.  That  necessity  doth  not  render  actions 
less  morally  good,  is  evident ;  for  if  necessary  virtue  be 
neither  moral  nor  praiseworthy,  it  will  follow  that  God 
himself  is  not  a  moral  being,  because  he  is  a  necessary 
one ;  and  the  obedience  of  Christ  cannot  be  good,  because 
\t  was  necessary.  Further,  say  they,  necessity  does  no* 
preclude  the  use  of  means ;  for  means  are  no  less  appointed 
than  the  end.  It  was  ordained  that  Christ  should  be 
delivered  up  to  death  ;  but  he  could  not  have  been  betrayed 
without  a  betrayer,  nor  crucified  without  crucifiers.  That 
it  is  not  a  gloomy  doctrine,  they  allege,  because  nothing 
can  be  more  consolatory  than  to  believe  that  all  things  are 
under  the  direction  of  an  all-wise  Being ;  that  his  kingdom 
ruleth  over  all,  and  that  he  doth  all  things  well.  So  fai 
from  its  being  inimical  to  happiness,  they  suppose  there 
can  be  no  solid  true'  happiness  without  the  belief  of  it ; 
that  it  inspires  gratitude,  excites  confidence,  teaches 
resignation,  produces  humility,  and  draws  the  soul  to  God. 
It  is  also  observed,  that  to  deny  necessity  is  to  deny  the 
foreknowledge  of  God,  and  to  wrest  the  sceptre  from  the 
hand  of  the  Creator,  and  to  place  that  capricious  and 
undefinable  principle  —  the  self-determining  power  of  man 
—  upon  the  throne  of  the  universe.  Besides,  say  they,  the 
Scripture  places  the  doctrine  beyond  all  doubt,  Job  xxiii. 
13,  14, ;  xxxiv.  29  ;  Prov.  xvi.  4 ;  Is.  xlv.  7  ;  Acts  xiii.  48; 
Eph.  i.  11 ;  1  Thess.  iii.  3 ;  Matt.  x.  29,  30,  xviii.  7  j  Luke 
xxiv.  26 ;  John  vi.  37. 


382  LOLLARDS. 


LOLLARDS. 

THE  Lollards  were  a  religious  sect,  differing  in  many 
points  from  the  Church  of  Rome,  which  arose  in  Germany 
about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century;  so  called, 
as  many  writers  have  imagined,  from  Walter  Lollard,  who 
began  to  dogmatize  in  1315,  and  was  burned  at  Cologne; 
though  others  think  that  Lollard  was  no  surname,  but 
merely  a  term  of  reproach  applied  to  all  heretics  who  con- 
cealed the  poison  of  error  under  the  appearance  of  piety. 

The  monk  of  Canterbury  derives  the  origin  of  the  word 
lollard  among  us  from  lolium,  "  a  tare,"  as  if  the  Lollards 
were  the  tares  sown  in  Christ's  vineyard.  Abelly  says, 
that  the  word  signifies  "praising  God,"  from  the  German 
loben,  "to  praise,"  and  Jterr,  "lord;"  because  the  Lollards 
employed  themselves  in  travelling  about  from  place  to 
place,  singing  psalms  and  hymns.  Others,  much  to  the 
same  purpose,  derive  lotthard,  lulhard,  or  lollert,  lullert,  as 
it  was  written  by  the  ancient  Germans,  from  the  old 
German  word,  lullen,  lollen,  or  lallen,  and  the  termination 
hard,  with  which  many  of  the  High  Dutch  words  end. 
Lollen  signifies,  "to  sing  with  a  low  voice,"  and  therefore 
lollard  is  a  singer,  or  one  who  frequently  sings ;  and  in 
the  vulgar  tongue  of  the  Germans  it  denotes  a  person  who 
is  continually  praising  God  with  a  song,  or  singing  hymns 
to  his  honor. 

The  Alexians  or  Cellites  were  called  Lollards,  because 
they  were  public  singers,  who  made  it  their  business  to 
inter  the  bodies  of  those  who  died  of  the  plague,  and  sang 
a  dirge  over  them  in  a  mournful  and  indistinct  tone,  as 
they  carried  them  to  the  grave.  The  name  was  after- 


LOLLARDS.  383 

wards  assumed  by  persons  that  dishonored  it ;  for  we  find 
among  those  Lollards  who  made  extraordinary  pretences 
to  religion,  and  spent  the  greatest  part  of  their  time  in 
meditation,  prayer,  and   such   acts  of  piety,  there  were 
many  abominable    hypocrites,  who    entertained  the  most 
ridiculous  opinions,  and  concealed  the  most  enormous  vices 
under  the  specious  mask  of  this  extraordinary  profession 
Many   injurious    aspersions   were    therefore    propagated 
against  those  who  assumed  this  name  by  the  priests  and 
monks ;    so   that,    by   degrees,   any  person  who   covered 
heresies  or  crimes  under  the  appearance  of  piety  was  called 
a  Lollard.     Thus  the  name  was  not  used  to  denote  any 
one  particular  sect,  but  was  formerly  common  to  all  persons 
or  sects  who  were  supposed  to  be  guilty  of  impiety  towards 
God  or  the  church,  under  an  external  profession  of  great 
piety.     However,  many  societies,  consisting  both  of  men 
and  women,  under  the  name  of  Lollards,  were  formed  in 
most  parts  of  Germany  and  Flanders,  and  were  supported 
partly  by  their  manual  labors,  and  partly  by  the  charitable 
donations  of  pious  persons.     The  magistrates  and  inhabi- 
tants of  the  towns  where  these  brethren  and  sisters  resided, 
gave  them  particular  marks  of  favor  and  protection,  on 
account  of  their  great  usefulness  to  the  sick  and  needy. 
They  were  thus  supported  against  their  malignant  rivals, 
and  obtained    many  papal    constitutions,  by  which  their 
institute  was  confirmed,  their  persons  exempted  from  the 
cognizance  of  the  inquisitor,  and  subjected  entirely  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishops ;  but  as  these  measures  were 
insufiicient  to  secure  them  from  molestation,  Charles,  duke 
of  Burgundy,  in  the  year  1472,  obtained  a  solemn  bull 
from  pope  Sextus  IV.,  ordering  that  the  Cellites  or  Lol- 
lards should  be  ranked  among  the  religious  orders,  and 
delivered  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops.     And  pope 
Julius  II.  granted  them  still  greater  privileges,  in  tho 


384 


JESUITS 


1506.  Mosheim  informs  us,  that  many  societies  of  this 
kind  are  still  subsisting  at  Cologne,  and  in  the  cities  of 
Flanders,  though  they  have  evidently  departed  from  their 
ancient  rules. 

Lollard  and  his  followers  rejected  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass,  extreme  unction,  and  penances  for  sin  ;  arguing  that 
Christ's  sufferings  were  sufficient.  He  is  likewise  said  to 
have  set  aside  baptism,  as  a  thing  of  no  effect ;  and  re- 
pentance as  not  absolutely  necessary,  &c.  In  England, 
the  followers  of  Wickliffe  were  called,  by  way  of  reproach, 
Lollards,  from  the  supposition  that  there  was  some  affinity 
between  some  of  their  tenets  ;  though  others  are  of  opinion 
that  the  English  Lollards  came  from  Germany. 


JESUITS. 

JESUITS,  or  the  Society  of  Jesus,  a  famous  religious 
order  of  the  Roman  Church,  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola, 
a  Spanish  knight,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  plan 
which  this  fanatic  formed  of  its  constitution  and  laws,  was 
suggested,  as  he  gave  out,  by  the  immediate  inspiration 
of  Heaven.  But,  notwithstanding  this  high  pretension,  his 
design  met  at  first  with  violent  opposition.  The  Pope,  to 
whom  Loyola  had  applied  for  the  sanction  of  his  authority 
to  confirm  the  institution,  referred  his  petition  to  a  com- 
mittee of  cardinals.  They  represented  the  establishment 
to  be  unnecessary  as  well  as  dangerous,  and  Paul  refused 
to  grant  his  approbation  of  it.  At  last,  Loyola  removed 
all  his  scruples,  by  an  offer  which  it  was  impossible  for  any 
Pope  to  resist.  He  proposed  that,  besides  the  three  vcws 


JESU  ITS. 


38i 


of  poverty,  of  chastity,  and  of  monastic  obedience,  which 
are  common  to  all  the  orders  of  regulars,  the  members  of 
his  society  should  take  a  fourth  vow  of  obedience  to  the 
Pope,  binding  themselves  to  go  whithersoever  he  should 
command  for  the  service  of  religion,  and  without  requiring 
anything  from  the  Holy  See  for  their  support.  At  a  time 
when  the  Papal  authority  had  received  such  a  shock  by 
the  revolt  of  so  many  nations  from  the  Romish  Church,  at 
a  time  when  every  part  of  the  popish  system  was  attacked 
with  so  much  violence  and  success,  the  acquisition  of  a 
body  of  men,  thus  peculiarly  devoted  to  the  see  of  Rome, 
and  whom  it  might  set  in  opposition  to  all  its  enemies,  waa 
an  object  of  the  highest  consequence.  Paul,  instantly  per- 
ceiving this,  confirmed  the  institution  of  the  Jesuits  by  his 
bull,  granted  the  most  ample  privileges  to  the  members 
of  the  society,  and  appointed  Loyola  to  be  the  first  general 
of  the  order.  1640  The  event  justified  Paul's  discernment 
in  expecting  such  beneficial  consequences  to  the  see  of 
Rome  from  this  institution.  In  less  than  half  a  century, 
the  society  obtained  establishments  in  every  country  that 
adhered  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  its  power  and 
wealth  increased  amazingly ;  the  number  of  its  members 
became  great ;  their  character  as  well  as  accomplishments 
were  still  greater ;  and  the  Jesuits  were  celebrated  by  the 
friends  and  dreaded  by  the  enemies  of  the  Romish  faith, 
as  the  most  able  and  enterprising  order  in  the  church. 

2.  Jesuits,  object  of  the  Order  of. — The  primary  object 
of  almost  all  the  monastic  orders  is  to  separate  men  from  the 
world,  and  from  any  concern  in  its  aifairs.  In  the  solitude 
and  silence  of  the  cloister,  the  monk  is  called  to  work  out  his 
salvation  by  extraordinary  acts  of  mortification  and  piety. 
He  is  dead  to  the  world,  and  ought  not  to  mingle  in  its 
transactions.  He  can  be  of  no  benefit  to  mankind  but  by 
his  example  and  by  his  prayers.  On  the  contrary,  the 

33  Z 


386  JESUITS. 

Jesuits  are  taught  to  consider  themselves  as  formed  foi 
action.  They  are  chosen  soldiers,  bound  to  exert  them- 
selves continually  in  the  service  of  God,  and  of  the  Pope, 
his  vicar  on  earth.  Whatever  tends  to  instruct  the  igno- 
rant, whatever  can  he  of  use  to  reclaim  or  oppose  the  ene- 
mies of  the  Holy  See,  is  their  proper  object.  That  they 
may  have  full  leisure  for  this  active  service,  they  are  totally 
exempted  from  those  functions,  the  performance  of  which 
is  the  chief  business  of  other  monks.  They  appear  in  no 
processions ;  they  practise  no  rigorous  austerities  ;  they  do 
not  consume  one-half  of  their  time  in  the  repetition  of 
tedious  offices ;  but  they  are  required  to  attend  to  all  the 
transactions  of  the  world,  on  account  of  the  influence  which 
these  may  have  upon  religion :  they  are  directed  to  study 
the  disposition  of  persons  in  high  rank,  and  to  cultivate 
their  friendship ;  and  by  the  very  constitucion  and  genius 
of  the  order,  a  spirit  of  action  and  intrigue  is  infused  into 
all  its  members. 

3.  Jesuits,  peculiarities  of  their  policy  and  government. 
• — Other  orders  are  to  be  considered  as  voluntary  associa- 
tions, in  which,  whatever  affects  the  whole  body,  is  regu- 
lated by  the  common  suffrage  of  all  its  members.  But 
Loyola,  full  of  the  ideas  of  implicit  obedience,  which  he 
had  derived  from  his  military  profession,  appointed  that 
the  government  of  his  order  should  be  purely  monarchical. 
A  general  chosen  for  life,  by  deputies  from  the  several 
provinces,  possessed  power  that  was  supreme  and  inde- 
pendent, extending  to  every  person  and  to  every  case.  To 
b>  commands  they  were  required  to  yield  not  only  outward 
obedience,  but  to  resign  up  to  him  the  inclinations  of  their 
own  wills,  and  the  sentiments  of  their  own  understandings. 
Such  a  singular  form  of  policy  could  not  fail  to  impress  its 
character  on  all  the  members  of  the  order,  and  to  give  a 
eculiar  force  to  all  its  operations.  There  iiaa  not 


JESUITS.  387 

perhaps,  in  the  annals  of  mankind,  any  example  of  such  a 
perfect  despotism  exercised,  not  over  monks  shut  up  in  the 
cells  of  a  convent,  but  over  men  dispersed  among  all  the 
nations  of  the  earth.  As  the  constitutions  of  the  order 
vest  in  the  general  such  absolute  dominion  over  all  its 
members,  they  carefully  provide  for  his  being  perfectly  in- 
formed with  respect  to  the  character  and  abilities  of  hi3 
subjects.  Every  novice  who  offers  himself  for  a  candidate 
for  entering  into  the  order,  is  obliged  to  manifest  his  con- 
science to  the  superior,  or  a  person  appointed  by  him ;  and 
is  required  to  confess  not  only  his  sins  and  defects,  but  to 
discover  the  inclinations,  the  passions,  and  the  bent  of  the 
soul.  This  manifestation  must  be  renewed  every  six  months. 
Each  member  is  directed  to  observe  the  words  and  actions 
of  the  novices,  and  they  are  bound  to  disclose  everything  of 
importance  concerning  them  to  the  superior.  In  order  that 
the  scrutiny  into  their  character  may  be  as  complete  as 
possible,  a  long  noviciate  must  expire,  during  which  they 
pass  through  the  several  gradations  of  rank  in  the  society; 
and  they  must  have  attained  the  full  age  of  thirty-three 
years  before  they  can  be  admitted  to  take  the  final  vows 
by  which  they  become  professed  members.  By  these  various 
methods,  the  superiors,  under  whose  immediate  inspection 
the  novices  are  placed,  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
their  disposition  and  talents  ;  and  the  general,  by  examin- 
ing the  registers  kept  for  this  purpose,  is  enabled  to  choose 
the  instruments  which  his  absolute  power  can  employ  in 
any  service  for  which  he  thinks  meet  to  destine  them. 

4.  Jesuits,  progress  of  the  power  and  influence  of. — As 
it  was  the  professed  intention  of  this  order  to  labor  with 
unwearied  zeal  in  promoting  the  salvation  of  men,  this  en- 
gaged them,  of  course,  in  many  active  functions.  From 
their  first  institution,  they  considered  the  education  of  youth 
as  their  peculiar  province :  they  aimed  at  being  spiritual 


388  JESUITS. 

guides  and  confessors ;  they  preached  frequently,  in  order 
to  instruct  the  people ;  they  set  out  as  missionaries  to  con- 
vert unbelieving  nations.  Before  the  expiration  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  they  had  obtained  the  chief  direction  of  the 
education  of  youth  in  every  Catholic  country  in  Europe. 
They  had  become  the  confessors  of  almost  all  its  monarchs; 
a  function  of  no  small  importance  in  any  reign,  but,  under 
a  weak  prince,  superior  to  that  of  minister.  They  were 
the  spiritual  guides  of  almost  every  person  eminent  for 
rank  or  power ;  they  possessed  the  highest  degree  of  confi- 
dence and  interest  with  the  papal  court,  as  the  most  zealoua 
and  able  champions  for  its  authority ;  they  possessed,  at 
different  periods,  the  direction  of  the  most  considerable 
courts  in  Europe  ;  they  mingled  in  all  affairs,  and  took  part 
in  every  intrigue  and  revolution.  But  while  they  thus 
advanced  in  power,  they  increased  also  in  wealth :  various 
expedients  were  devised  for  eluding  the  obligation  of  the  vow 
of  poverty.  Besides  the  sources  of  wealth  commou  to  all 
the  regular  clergy,  the  Jesuits  possessed  one  which  was 
peculiar  to  themselves.  Under  the  pretext  of  promoting 
the  success  of  their  missions,  and  of  facilitating  the  sup- 
port of  their  missionaries,  they  obtained  a  special  licensa 
from  the  court  of  Rome,  to  trade  with  the  nations  which 
they  labored  to  convert ;  in  consequence  of  this,  they  en- 
gaged in  an  extensive  and  lucrative  commerce,  both  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies ;  they  opened  warehouses  in  different 
parts  of  Europe,  in  which  they  vended  their  commodities. 
Not  satisfied  with  trade  alone,  they  imitated  the  example 
of  other  commercial  societies,  and  aimed  at  obtaining  set- 
tlements. They  acquired  possession,  accordingly,  of  tha 
large  and  fertile  province  of  Paraguay,  which  stretches 
across  the  southern  continent  of  America,  from  the  bottom 
of  the  mountains  of  Potosi  to  the  confines  of  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  settlements  on  the  banks  of  the  river  De  la 


JESUITS.  389 

Plata.  Here,  indeed,  it  must  be  confessed,  they  were  of 
service :  they  found  the  inhabitants  in  a  state  little  diffor- 
ent  from  that  which  takes  place  among  men  when  they  first 
begin  to  unite  together  ;  strangers  to  the  arts  ;  subsisting 
precariously  by  hunting  or  fishing ;  and  hardly  acquainted 
with  the  first  principles  of  subordination  and  government. 
The  Jesuits  set  themselves  to  instruct  and  civilize  these 
savages :  they  taught  them  to  cultivate  the  ground,  build 
houses,  and  brought  them  to  live  together  in  villages,  &c. 
They  made  them  taste  the  sweets  of  society,  and  trained 
them  to  arts  and  manufactures.  Such  was  their  power 
over  them,  that  a  few  Jesuits  presided  over  some  hundred 
thousand  Indians.  But  even  in  this  meritorious  effort  of 
the  Jesuits  for  the  good  of  mankind,  the  genius  and  spirit 
of  their  order  was  discernible :  they  plainly  aimed  at  esta- 
blishing in  Paraguay  an  independent  empire,  subject  to  the 
society  alone,  and  which,  by  the  superior  excellence  of  its 
constitution  and  police,  could  scarcely  have  failed  to  extend 
its  dominion  over  all  the  southern  continent  of  America. 
With  this  view,  in  order  to  prevent  the  Spaniards  and  Por- 
tuguese in  the  adjacent  settlements  from  acquiring  any 
dangerous  influence  over  the  people  within  the  limits  of  the 
province  subject  to  the  society,  the  Jesuits  endeavored  to 
inspire  the  Indians  with  hatred  and  contempt  of  these  na- 
tions ;  they  cut  off  all  intercourse  between  their  subjects 
and  the  Spanish  or  Portuguese  settlements.  When  they 
•were  obliged  to  admit  any  person  in  a  public  character 
from  the  neighboring  governments,  they  did  not  permit  him 
to  have  any  conversation  with  their  subjects ;  and  no  Indian 
wus  allowed  even  to  enter  the  house  where  these  strangers 
resided,  unless  in  the  presence  of  a  Jesuit.  In  order  tc 
render  any  communication  between  them  as  difficult  as  pos- 
sible, they  industriously  avoided  giving  the  Indians  any 
knowledge  of  the  Spanish  or  any  other  European  language* 

33* 


390  «  £  S  U  I  T  S 

but  encouraged  the  different  tribes  which  they  ha  1  civilized 
to  acquire  a  certain  dialect  of  the  Indian  tongue,  and 
labored  to  make  that  the  universal  language  throughout 
their  dominions.  As  all  these  precautions,  without  military 
force,  would  have  been  insufficient  to  have  rendered  their 
empire  secure  and  permanent,  they  instructed  their  subjects 
in  the  European  art  of  war,  and  formed  them  into  bodies 
completely  armed,  and  well  disciplined. 

5.  Jesuits,  pernicious  efft  *ts  of  this  order  on  civil  so- 
ciety,— Though  it  must  be  COL  fessed  that  the  Jesuits  culti- 
vated the  study  of  ancient  literature,  and  contributed  much 
towards  the  progress  of  polite  learning ;  though  they  have 
produced  eminent  masters  in  every  branch  of  science,  and 
can  boast  of  a  number  of  ingenious  authors ;  yet,  unhap- 
pily for  mankind,  their  vast  influence  has  been  often  ex- 
erted with  the  most  fatal  effects.  Such  was  the  tendency 
of  that  discipline  observed  by  the  society  in  forming  its 
members,  and  such  the  fundamental  maxims  in  its  consti- 
tution, that  every  Jesuit  was  taught  to  regard  the  interest 
of  the  order  as  the  capital  object  to  which  every  considera- 
tion was  to  be  sacrificed.  As  the  prosperity  of  the  order 
was  intimately  connected  with  the  preservation  of  the  papal 
authority,  the  Jesuits,  influenced  by  the  same  principle  of 
attachment  to  the  interest  of  their  society,  have  been  the 
most  zealous  patrons  of  those  doctrines  which  tend  to 
exalt  ecclesiastical  power  on  the  ruins  of  civil  government. 
They  have  attributed,  to  the  court  of  Rome  a  jurisdiction 
as  extensive  and  absolute  as  was  claimed  by  the  most  pre- 
sumptuous pontiffs  in  the  dark  ages.  They  have  contended 
for  the  entire  independence  of  ecclesiastics  on  the  civil 
magistrates.  They  have  published  such  tenets  concerning 
the  duty  of  opposing  princes  who  were  enemies  of  the 
Catholic  faith,  as  countenanced  the  most  atrocious  crimes, 
and  tended  to  dissrlve  all  the  ties  which  connect  subjects 


JESUITS.  391 

with  their  rulers.  As  the  order  derived  both  reputation 
and  authority  from  the  zeal  with  which  it  stood  forth  iu 
defence  of  the  Romish  Church  against  the  attacks  of  the 
reformers,  its  members,  proud  of  this  distinction,  have 
considered  it  as  their  peculiar  function  to  combat  the 
opinions,  and  to  check  the  progress  of  the  Protestants. 
They  have  made  use  of  every  art,  and  have  employed 
every  weapon  against  them.  They  have  set  themselves 
in  opposition  to  every  gentle  or  tolerating  measure  in  their 
favor.  They  have  incessar  cly  stirred  up  against  them  all 
the  rage  of  ecclesiastical  and  civil  persecution.  Whoever 
recollects  the  events  which  have  happened  in  Europe 
during  two  centuries,  will  find  that  the  Jesuits  may  justly 
be  considered  as  responsible  for  most  of  the  pernicious 
effects  arising  from  that  corrupt  and  dangerous  casuistry, 
from  those  extravagant  tenets  concerning  ecclesiastical 
power,  and  from  that  intolerant  spirit  which  have  been  the 
disgrace  of  the  Church  of  Rome  throughout  that  period, 
and  which  have  brought  so  many  calamities  upon  society. 
6.  Jesuits,  downfall  in  Europe.  —  Such  were  the  laws, 
the  policy,  and  the  genius  of  this  formidable  order ;  of 
which,  however,  a  perfect  knowledge  has  only  been  attain- 
able of  late.  Europe  had  observed  for  two  centuries  the 
ambition  and  power  of  the  order ;  but  while  it  felt  many 
fatal  effects  of  these,  it  could  not  fully  discern  the  causes 
to  which  they  were  to  be  imputed.  It  was  unacquainted 
with  many  of  the  singular  regulations  in  the  political  con- 
stitution or  government  of  the  Jesuits,  which  formed  the 
enterprising  spirit  of  intrigue  that  distinguished  its  mem- 
bers, and  elevated  the  body  itself  to  such  a  height  of 
power.  It  was  a  fundamental  maxim  with  the  Jesuits, 
from  their  first  institution,  not  to  publish  the  rules  of  their 
order  :  these  they  kept  concealed  as  an  impenetrable  mys- 
tery. They  never  communicated  them  to  strangers,  nor 


392  JESUITS. 

even  to  the  greater  part  of  their  own  members ;  they  re- 
fused to  produce  them  when  required  by  courts  of  justice ; 
and,  by  a  strange  solecism  in  policy,  the  civil  power  in 
different  countries  authorized  or  connived  at  the  establish- 
ment of  an  order  of  men,  whose  constitution  and  laws  were 
concealed  with  a  solicitude  which  alone  was  a  good  reason 
for  having  excluded  them.  During  the  prosecutions  which 
have  been  carried  on  against  them  in  Portugal  and  France, 
the  Jesuits  have  been  so  inconsiderate  as  to  produce  the 
mysterious  volumes  of  their  institute.  By  the  aid  of  these 
authentic  records,  the  principles  of  their  government  may 
be  delineated,  and  the  sources  of  their  power  investigated, 
with  a  degree  of  certainty  and  precision  which,  previous 
to  that  event,  it  was  impossible  to  attain. 

The  pernicious  effects  of  the  spirit  and  constitution  of 
this  order  rendered  it  early  obnoxious  to  some  of  the 
principal  powers  in  Europe,  and  gradually  brought  on  its 
downfall.  There  is  a  remarkable  passage  in  a  sermon 
preached  at  Dublin  by  Archbishop  Brown,  so  long  ago  as 
the  year  1551,  and  which  may  be  considered  as  almost 
prophetic.  It  is  as  follows:  "But  there  are  a  new  frater- 
nity of  late  sprung  up,  who  call  themselves  Jesuits,  which 
will  deceive  many,  much  after  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees' 
manner.  Amongst  the  Jews  they  shall  strive  to  abolish 
the  truth,  and  shall  come  very  near  to  do  it.  For  these 
sorts  will  turn  themselves  into  several  forms ;  with  the 
heathen,  a  heathenist ;  with  the  atheist,  an  atheist ;  with 
the  Jews,  a  Jew ;  with  the  reformers,  a  reformade ;  pur- 
posely to  know  your  intentions,  your  minds,  your  hearts, 
arid  your  inclinations,  and  thereby  bring  you  at  last  to  be 
like  the  fool  that  said  in  his  heart,  there  was  no  God. 
These  shall  be  spread  over  the  whole  world,  shall  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  councils  of  princes,  and  they  never  the 
wiser ;  charming  of  them,  yea,  making  your  princes  reveal 


HOPKINSIANS.  JJ3 

their  hearts,  and  the  secrets  therein,  and  yet  they  not 
perceive  it ;  which  will  happen  from  falling  from  the  law 
of  God,  by  neglect  of  fulfilling  the  law  of  God,  and  by 
winking  at  their  sins ;  yet,  in  the  end,  God,  to  justify  his 
law,  shall  suddenly  cut  off  this  society,  even  by  the  hand 
of  those  who  have  most  succored  them,  and  made  use  of 
them  ;  so  that  at  the  end  they  shall  become  odious  to  all 
nations.  They  shall  be  worse  than  Jews,  having  no  resting 
place  upon  earth ;  and  then  shall  a  Jew  have  more  favor 
than  a  Jesuit."  This  singular  passage  seems  to  be  accom- 
plished. The  Emperor  Charles  V.  saw  it  expedient  to 
check  their  progress  in  his  dominions ;  they  were  expelled 
England  by  proclamation,  2  James  I.,  in  1604;  Venice  in 
1606 ;  Portugal  in  1759 ;  France  in  1764 :  Spain  arid 
Sicily  in  1767 ;  and  totally  suppressed  and  abolished  by 
Pope  Clement  XIV.,  in  1773. 

In  1801  the  society  was  restored  in  Russia  by  the 
Emperor  Paul ;  and  in  1804,  by  King  Ferdinand,  in  Sar- 
dinia. In  August,  1814,  a  bull  was  issued  by  Pope  Pius 
VII.,  restoring  the  order  to  all  their  former  privileges,  and 
calling  upon  all  Catholic  princes  to  afford  them  protection 
and  encouragement. 


HOPKINSIANS. 

THE  Hopkinsians  were  so  called  from  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Hopkins,  D.  D.,  an  American  divine,  who  in  his  sermons 
and  tracts  has  made  several  additions  to  the  sentimenta 
first  advanced  by  the  celebrated  Jonathan  Edwards,  late 
president  of  New  Jersey  College. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  distinguished  teneta 


HOPKINSIANb. 

of  the  Hopkinsians,  together  with  a  few  of  the  reasons  they 
bring  forward  in  support  of  their  sentiments. 

1.  That  all  true  virtue,  or  real  holiness,  consists  in  dis- 
interested benevolence.     The  object  of  benevolence  is  uni- 
versal being,  inclnding  God  and  all  intelligent  creatures. 
It  wishes  and  seeks  the  good  of  every  individual,  so  far  as 
is  consistent  with  the  greatest  good  of  the  whole,  which  is 
comprised  in  the  glory  of  God  and  the  perfection  and  hap- 
piness of  his  kingdom.     The  law  of  God  is  the  standard 
of  all  moral  rectitude  or  holiness.     This  is  reduced  into 
love  to  God,  and  our  neighbor  as  ourselves,  and  universal 
good-will  comprehends  all  the  love  to  God,  our  neighbor 
and  ourselves,  required  in  the  divine  law,  and  therefore 
must  be  the  whole  of  holy  obedience.     Let  any  serious 
person  think  what  are  the  particular  branches  of  true  piety; 
when  he  has  viewed  each  one  by  itself,  he  will  find  that 
disinterested  friendly  affection  is  its  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic.   For  instance,  all  the  holiness  in  pious  fear,  which 
distinguishes  it  from  the  fear  of  the  wicked,  consists  in  love. 
Again — holy  gratitude  is  nothing  but  good-will  to  God  and 
our  neighbor,  in  which  we  ourselves  are  included ;  and  cor- 
respondent affection,  excited  by  a  view  of  the  good- will  and 
kindness  of  God.     Universal  good-will  also  implies  the 
whole  of  the  duty  we  owe  to  our  neighbor,  for  justice,  truth, 
and  faithfulness,  are  comprised  in  universal  benevolence ; 
so  are  temperance  and  chastity.    For  an  undue  indulgence 
of  our  appetites  and  passions  is  contrary  to  benevolence, 
as  tending  to  hurt  ourselves  or  others ;  and  so  opposite  to 
the  general  good,  and  the  divine  command,  in  which  all  the 
crime  of  such  indulgence  consists.     In  shore,  all  virtue  is 
nothing  but  benevolence  acted  out  in  its  proper  nature  and 
perfection ;  or  love  to  God  and  our  neighbor,  made  perfect 
in  all  its  genuine  exercises  and  expressions. 
2.  That  all  ain  consists  In  selfishness.    By  this  is  meant 


HOPKINSIANS.  395 

an  interested,  selfish  affection,  by  which  a  person  sets  him- 
eelf  up  as  supreme,  and  the  only  ohject  of  regard ;  and 
nothing  is  good  or  lovely  in  his  view,  unless  suited  to  pro- 
mote his  own  private  interest.  This  self-love  is,  in  its 
whole  nature,  and  every  degree  of  it,  enmity  against  God: 
it  is  not  subject  to  the  law  of  God,  and  is  the  only  affection 
that  can  oppose  it.  It  is  the  foundation  of  all  spiritual 
blindness,  and  therefore  the  source  of  all  the  open  idolatry 
in  the  heathen  world,  and  false  religion  under  the  light  of 
the  Gospel;  all  this  is  agreeable  to  that  self-love  which 
opposes  God's  true  character.  Under  the  influence  of  this 
principle,  men  depart  from  truth ;  it  being  itself  the  great- 
est practical  lie  in  nature,  as  it  sets  up  that  which  is  com- 
paratively nothing  above  universal  existence.  Self-love  is 
the  source  of  all  profaneness  and  impiety  in  the  world,  and 
of  all  pride  and  ambition  among  men,  which  is  nothing  hut 
selfishness,  acted  out  in  this  particular  way.  This  is  the 
foundation  of  all  covetousness  and  sensuality,  as  it  blinds 
people's  eyes,  contracts  their  hearts,  and  sinks  them  down, 
60  that  they  look  upon  earthly  enjoyments  as  the  greatest 
good.  This  is  the  source  of  all  falsehood,  injustice,  and 
oppression,  as  it  excites  mankind  by  undue  methods  to  in- 
vade the  property  of  others.  Self-love  produces  all  the 
violent  passions  ;  envy,  wrath,  clamor,  and  evil  speaking : 
and  everything  contrary  to  the  divine  law  is  briefly  com- 
prehended in  this  fruitful  source  of  all  iniquity,  self-love. 

3.  That  there  are  no  promises  of  regenerating  grace 
made  to  the  doings  of  the  unregenerate.  For  as  far  as 
men  act  from  self-love,  they  act  from  a  bad  end :  for  those 
who  have  no  true  love  to  God,  really  .do  no  duty  when  they 
attend  on  the  externals  of  religion.  And  as  the  unregene- 
rate act  from  a  selfish  principle,  they  do  nothing  which  is 
commanded :  their  impenitent  doings  are  wholly  opposed 
to  repentance  and  conversion  ;  therefore  not  implied  iu  the 


HOPKINSIANS. 

command  to  repent,  &c. ;  so  far  from  this,  they  are  alto- 
gether disobedient  to  the  command.  Hence  it  appears 
that  there  are  no  promises  of  salvation  to  the  doings  of  the 
unregenerate. 

4.  That  the  impotency  of  sinners,  with  respect  to  be- 
lieving in  Christ,  is  not  natural,  but  moral ;  for  it  is  a  plain 
dictate  of  common  sense,  that  natural  impossibility  excludes 
all  blame.    But  an  unwilling  mind  is  universally  considered 
as  a  crime,  and  not  as  an  excuse,  and  is  the  very  thing 
wherein  our  wickedness  consists.     That  the  impotence  of 
the  sinner  is  owing  to  a  disaffection  of  heart,  is  evident 
from  the  promises  of  the  Gospel.    When  any  object  of  good 
is  proposed  and  promised  to  us  upon  asking,  it  cle;irly 
evinces  that  there  can  be  no  impotence  in  us  with  respect 
to  obtaining  it,   beside  the    disapprobation  of  the   will ; 
and  that  inability  which  consists  in  disinclination,  never 
renders  anything  improperly  the  subject  of  precept  or 
command. 

5.  That,  in  order  to  faith  in  Christ,  a  sinner  must  approve 
in  his  heart  of  the  divine  conduct^  even  though  God  should 
cast  him  off  forever  ;  which,  however,  neither  implies  love 
of  misery,  nor  hatred  of  happiness.    For  if  the  law  is  good, 
death  is  due  to  those  who  have  broken  it.    The  Judge  of  all 
the  earth  cannot  but  do  right.     It  will  bring  everlasting 
reproach   upon    his   government   to   spare  us,  considered 
merely  as  in  ourselves.     When  this  is  felt  in  our  hearts, 
and  not  till  then,  we  shall  be  prepared  to  look  to  the  free 
grace  of  God,  through  the  redemption  which  is  in  Christ, 
and  to  exercise  faith  in  his  blood,  who  is  set  forth  to  be  a 
propitiation  to  declare  God's  righteousness,  that  he  might 
be  just,  and  yet  be  the  justifier  of  him  who   believeth  in 
Jesus. 

6.  That  the  infinitely  wise  and  holy  God  has  exerted  his 
omnipotent  power  in  such  a  manner  as  he  purposed  should 


HOPKINSIANS.  397 

be  followed  with  the  existence  and  entrance  of  moral  evil 
into  the  system.  For  it  must  be  admitted  on  all  hands, 
that  God  has  a  perfect  knowledge,  foresight,  and  view  of  all 
possible  existences  and  events.  If  that  system  and  scene 
of  operation,  in  which  moral  evil  should  never  have  existed, 
was  actually  preferred  in  the  divine  mind,  certainly  the 
Deity  is  infinitely  disappointed  in  the  issue  of  his  own  ope- 
rations. Nothing  can  be  more  dishonorable  to  God  than 
to  imagine  that  the  system  which  is  actually  formed  by  the 
divine  hand,  and  which  was  made  for  his  pleasure  and 
glory,  is  yet  not  the  fruit  of  wise  contrivance  and  design 

7.  That  the  introduction  of  sin  is,  upon  the  whole,  for 
the  general  good.    For  the  wisdom  and  power  of  the  Deity 
are  displayed  in  carrying  on  designs  of  the  greatest  good; 
and  the  existence  of  moral  evil  has  undoubtedly  occasioned 
a  more  full,  perfect,  and  glorious  discovery  of  the  infinite 
perfections  of  the  divine  nature,  than  could  otherwise  have 
been  made  to  the  view  of  creatures.    If  the  extensive  mani- 
festations of  the  pure  and  holy  nature  of  God,  and  his  in- 
finite aversion  to  sin,  and  all  his  inherent  perfections,  in 
their  genuine  fruits  and  effects,  is  either  itself  the  greatest 
good,  or  unnecessarily  contains  it,  it  must  necessarily  follow 
that  the  introduction  of  sin  is  for  the  greatest  good. 

8.  That  repentance  is  before  faith  in  Christ. — By  this 
is  not  intended,  that  repentance  is  before  a  speculative 
belief  of  the  being  and  perfections  of  God,  and  of  the  person 
and  character  of  Christ ;  but  only  that  true  repentance  is 
previous  to  a  saving  faith  in  Christ,  in  which  the  believer 
is  united  to  Christ,  and  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  his  media- 
tion and  atonement.     That  repentance  is  before  faith,  in 
this  sense,  appears  from  several  considerations.     1.  As 
repentance  and  faith  respect  different  objects,  so  they  are 
distinct  exercises  of  the  heart ;  and  therefore  one  not  only 
may,  but  must  be  prior  to  the  other.     2.  There  may  be 

34 


398  HOPKINSIANS. 

genuine  repentance  of  sin  without  faith  in  Christ,  but  there 
cannot  be  true  faith  in  Christ  without  repentance  of  sin ; 
and  since  repentance  is  necessary  in  order  to  faith  in  Christ, 
it  must  necessarily  be  prior  to  faith  in  Christ.  3.  Johu 
the  Baptist,  Christ  and  his  apostles,  taught  that  repentance 
is  before  faith,  John  cried,  Repent,  for  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  is  at  hand ;  intimating  that  true  repentance  was 
necessary  in  order  to  embrace  the  Gospel  of  the  kingdom. 
Christ  commanded,  Repent  ye,  and  believe  the  Grospel.  And 
Paul  preached  repentance  toward  Grod,  and  faith  toward 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

9.  That  though  men  became  sinners  by  Adam,  according 
to  a  divine  constitution,  yet  they  have  and  are  accountable 
for  no  sins  but  personal :  for,  1.  Adam's  act,  in  eating  the 
forbidden  fruit,  was  not  the  act  of  his  posterity ;  therefore 
they  did  not  sin  at  the  same  time  he  did.     2.  The  sinful- 
ness  of  that  act  could  not  be  transferred  to  them  after- 
wards, because  the  sinfulness  of  an  act  can  no  more  be 
transferred  from  one  person  to  another  than  an  act  itself 
3.  Therefore  Adam's  act,  in  eating  the  forbidden  fruit,  was 
not  the  cause,  but  only  the  occasion  of  his  posterity's  being 
sinners.     God  was  pleased  to  make  a  constitution,  that,  if 
Adam  remained  holy  through  his  state  of  trial,  his  poste- 
rity should  in  consequence  be  holy  also ;  but  if  he  sinned, 
his  posterity  should  in  consequence  be  sinners  likewise. 
Adam  sinned,  and  now  God  brings  his  posterity  into  the 
world  sinners.    By  Adam's  sin  we  are  become  sinners,  not 
for  it ;  his  sin  being  only  the  occasion,  not  the  cause  of  our 
committing  sins. 

10.  That  though  believers  are  justified  through  Christ's 
righteousness,  yet  his  righteousness  is  not  transferred  to 
them.     For,  1.  Personal  righteousness   can   no  more  be 
transferred  from  one  person  to  another,  than  personal  sin. 
2.  If  Christ's  personal  righteousness  were  transferred  to 


ERASTIANS.  399 

believers,  they  would  be  as  perfectly  holy  as  Christ ;  and 
80  stand  in  no  need  of  forgiveness.  3.  But  believers  are 
not  conscious  of  having  Christ's  personal  righteousness,  but 
feel  and  bewail  much  indwelling  sin  and  corruption.  4. 
The  Scripture  represents  believers  as  receiving  only  the 
benefits  of  Christ's  righteousness  in  justification,  or  their 
being  pardoned  and  accepted  for  Christ's  righteousness' 
sake,  and  this  is  the  proper  Scripture  notion  of  imputation. 
Jonathan's  righteousness  was  imputed  to  Mephibosheth, 
when  David  showed  kindness  to  him  for  his  father  Jona- 
than's sake. 

The  Hopkinsians  warmly  contend  for  the  doctrine  of  the 
divine  decrees,  that  of  particular  election,  total  depravity, 
the  special  influences  of  the  Spirit  of  God  in  regeneration, 
justification  by  faith  alone,  the  final  perseverance  of  the 
saints,  and  the  consistency  between  entire  freedom  and 
absolute  dependence ;  and  therefore  claim  it  as  their  just 
due,  since  the  world  will  make  distinctions,  to  be  called 
Hopkinsian  Calvinists. 


ERASTIANS. 

THE  Erastians  are  so  called  from  Erastus,  a  German 
divine  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  pastoral  office, 
according  to  him,  was  only  persuasive,  like  a  professor  of 
science  over  his  students,  without  any  power  of  the  keys 
annexed.  The  Lord's  Supper  and  other  ordinances  of  the 
Gospel  were  to  be  free  and  open  to  all.  The  minister 
might  dissuade  the  vicious  and  unqualified  from  the  com- 
munion ;  but  might  not  refuse  it,  or  inflict  any  kind  of 
censure ;  the  punishment  of  all  offences,  either  of  a  civil 
or  religious  nature,  being  referred  to  the  civil  magistrate. 


DANCERS.  —  DAVIDISTS. 


DANCERS. 

THE  Dancers  were  a  sect  which  sprung  up  about  1373, 
in  Flanders,  and  places  about.  It  was  their  custom  all  of 
a  sudden  to  fall  a  dancing,  and,  holding  each  other's  hands, 
to  continue  thereat,  till,  being  suffocated  with  the  extraor- 
dinary violence,  they  fell  down  breathless  together. 
During  these  intervals  of  vehement  agitation  they  pretended 
they  were  favored  with  wonderful  visions.  Like  the 
Whippers,  they  roved  from  place  to  place,  begging  their 
victuals,  holding  their  secret  assemblies,  and  treating  the 
priesthood  and  worship  of  the  church  with  the  utmost  con- 
tempt. Thus  we  find,  as  Dr.  Haweis  observes,  that  the 
French  Convulsionists  arid  Welch  Jumpers  have  had  pre- 
decessors of  the  same  stamp.  There  is  nothing  new  ui:der 
t>-A  sun. 


DAVIDISTS. 

THE  Davidists  were  the  adherents  of  David  George,  a 
native  of  Delft,  who,  in  1525,  began  to  preach  a  new 
doctrine,  publishing  himself  to  be  the  true  Messiah;  and 
that  he  was  sent  of  God  to  fill  heaven,  which  was  quite 
empty  for  want  of  people  to  deserve  it.  fie  is  likewise 
said  to  have  denied  the  existence  of  angels,  good  and  evil, 
and  to  have  disbelieved  the  doctrine  of  a  future  judgment. 
He  rejected  marriage  with  the  Adamites ;  held  with 
Manes,  that  the  soul  was  not  defiled  by  sin ;  and  laughed 
at  the  self-denial  so  much  recommended  by  Jesus  Christ. 


COCCE1AN8. 

Such  were  his  principal  errors.  He  made  his  escape  from 
Delft,  and  retired  first  into  Friesland,  and  then  to  Basil, 
where  he  changed  his  name,  assuming  that  of  John  Bruck, 
and  died  in  1556.  He  left  some  disciples  behind  him,  to 
whom  he  promised  that  he  would  rise  again  at  the  end  of 
three  years.  Nor  was  he  altogether  a  false  prophet 
herein  ;  for  the  magistrates  of  that  city  being  informed,  at 
the  three  years'  end,  of  what  he  had  taught,  ordered  him 
to  be  dug  up,  and  burnt,  together  with  his  writings,  by 
the  common  hangman. 


COCCEIANS. 

THE  Cocceians  were  a  denomination  which  arose  in  the 
seventeenth  century;  so  called  from  John  Cocceius,  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  the  university  of  Leyden.  He  rep- 
resented the  whole  history  of  the  Old  Testament  as  a 
mirror,  which  held  forth  an  accurate  view  of  the  transac- 
tions and  events  that  were  to  happen  in  the  church  under 
the  dispensation  of  the  New  Testament,  and  unto  the  end 
of  the  world.  He  maintained  that  by  far  the  greatest 
part  of  the  ancient  prophecies  foretold  Christ's  ministry 
and  mediation,  and  the  rise,  progress,  and  revolutions  of 
the  church,  not  only  under  the  figure  of  persons  and  trans- 
actions, but  in  a  literal  manner,  and  by  the  very  sense  of 
the  words  used  in  these  predictions ;  and  laid  it  down  as 
a  fundamental  rule  of  interpretation,  that  the  words  and 
phrases  of  Scripture  are  to  be  understood  in  every  sense 
of  which  they  are  susceptible,  or,  in  other  words,  that  they 
signify  in  effect  everything  that  they  can  possibly  signify. 

Cocceius  also  taught,  that  the  covenant  made  between 

34*  2  A 


402  COCCE1ANS. 

God  and  the  Jewish  nation,  by  the  ministry  of  Moses,  was 
of  the  same  nature  as  the  new  covenant,  obtained  by  the 
mediation  of  Jesus  Christ.  In  consequence  of  this  general 
principle,  he  maintained  that  the  ten  commandments  were 
promulgated  by  Moses,  not  as  a  rule  of  obedience,  but  as 
a  representation  of  the  covenant  of  grace  —  that  when  the 
Jews  had  provoked  the  Deity  by  their  various  transgres- 
sions, particularly  by  the  worship  of  the  golden  calf,  the 
severe  and  servile  yoke  of  the  ceremonial  law  was  added 
to  the  decalogue,  as  a  punishment  inflicted  on  them  by  the 
Supreme  Being  in  his  righteous  displeasure  —  that  this 
yoke,  which  was  painful  in  itself,  became  doubly  so  on 
account  of  its  typical  signification ;  since  it  admonished 
the  Israelites  from  day  to  day  of  the  imperfection  and 
uncertainty  of  their  state,  filled  them  with  anxiety,  and 
was  a  perpetual  proof  that  they  had  merited  the  righteous 
displeasure  of  God,  and  could  not  expect,  before  the  coming 
of  the  Messiah,  the  entire  remission  of  their  iniquities  — 
that  indeed  good  men,  even  under  the  Mosaic  dispensation, 
were  immediately  after  death  made  partakers  of  everlasting 
glory ;  but  that  they  were  nevertheless,  during  the  whole 
course  of  their  lives,  far  removed  from  that  firm  hope  and 
assurance  of  salvation,  which  rejoices  the  faithful  under 
the  dispensation  of  the  Gospel  —  and  that  their  anxiety 
flowed  naturally  from  this  consideration,  that  their  sins, 
though  they  remained  unpunished,  were  not  pardoned; 
because  Christ  had  not  as  yet  offered  himself  up  a  sacrifice 
to  the  Father,  to  make  an  entire  atonement  for  them. 


COLLEGIANS. — BEREANS.  403 


COLLEGIANS. 

COLLEGIANS,  or  Collegiants,  a  sect  formed  among  tho 
Arminians  and  Anabaptists  in  Holland,  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  century ;  so  called  because  of 
their  colleges  or  meetings  twice  every  week,  where  every 
one,  females  excepted,  has  the  same  liberty  of  expounding 
the  Scriptures,  praying,  &c.  They  are  said  to  be  all  either 
Arians  or  Socinians ;  they  never  communicate  in  the  col- 
lege, but  meet  twice  a  year,  from  all  parts  of  Holland,  at 
Rhinsbergh,  (whence  they  are  also  called  Rhinsberghers] 
a  village  two  miles  from  Leyden,  where  they  communicate 
together  ;  admitting  every  one  that  presents  himself,  pro- 
fessing his  faith  in  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
and  resolution  to  live  suitably  to  their  precepts  and  doc- 
trines, without,  regard  to  his  sect  or  opinion.  They  have 
no  particular  ministers,  but  each  officiates  as  he  is  disposed. 
They  baptize  by  immersion. 


BEREANS. 

THE  Bereans  are  a  sect  of  Protestant  Dissenters  from 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  who  take  their  title  from  and  pro- 
fess to  follow  the  example  of  the  ancient  Bereans,  in 
building  their  system  of  faith  and  practice  upon  the  Scrip- 
tures alone,  without  regard  to  any  human  authority  what- 
ever. 

As  to  the  origin  of  this  sect,  we  find  that  the  Bereans 
first  assembled  as  a  separate  society  of  Christians,  in  the 


4U4  BEREANS. 

city  of  Edinburgh,  in  the  autumn  of  1773,  and  soon  after 
in  the  parish  of  Fettercairn.  The  opponents  of  the  Be- 
rean  doctrines  allege  that  the  new  system  of  faith  would 
never  have  been  heard  of,  had  hot  Mr.  Barclay,  the  founder 
of  it,  been  disappointed  of  a  settlement  in  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  But  the  Bereans,  in  answer  to  this  charge, 
appeal  not  only  to  Mr.  Barclay's  doctrine,  uniformly 
preached  in  the  church  of  Fettercairn,  and  many  other 
places  in  that  neighborhood,  for  fourteen  years  before  that 
benefice  became  vacant,  but  likewise  to  two  different  trea- 
tises, containing  the  same  doctrines,  published  by  him 
about  ten  or  twelve  years  before  that  period.  They  ad- 
mit, indeed,  that  previous  to  May,  1773,  when  the  general 
assembly,  by  sustaining  the  king's  presentation  in  favor 
of  Mr.  Foote,  excluded  Mr.  Barclay  from  succeeding  to 
the  church  of  Fettercairn  (notwithstanding  the  almost 
unanimous  desire  of  the  parishioners),  the  Bereans  had 
not  left  the  established  church,  nor  attempted  to  erect  them- 
selves into  a  distinct  society ;  but  they  add,  that  this  was 
by  no  means  necessary  on  their  part,  until  by  the  assem- 
bly's decision  they  were  in  danger  of  being  not  only  de- 
prived of  his  instructions,  but  of  being  scattered  as  sheep 
without  a  shepherd.  And  they  add,  that  it  was  Mr.  Bar- 
clay's open  and  public  avowal,  both  from  the  pulpit  and 
the  press,  of  those  peculiar  sentiments  which  now  distin- 
guish the  Bereans,  that  was  the  first  and  principal,  if  not 
the  only  cause  of  the  opposition  set  on  foot  against  his 
settlement  in  Fettercairn. 

The  Bereans  agree  with  the  great  majority  of  Christians 
respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  which  they  hold  as 
a  fundamental  article ;  and  they  also  agree  in  a  great  mea- 
sure with  the  professed  principles  of  both  the  established v 
churches  respecting  predestination  and  election,  though 
they  aV-ege  that  these  doctrines  are  not  consistently  taught 


B  E  R  E  A  N  S .  405 

in  either  church.  But  they  differ  from  the  majority  of  all 
sects  of  Christians  in  various  other  important  particulars, 
such  as,  1.  Respecting  our  knowledge  of  the  Deity.  Upon 
this  subject  they  say,  the  majority  of  professed  Christians 
stumhle  at  the  very  threshold  of  revelation ;  and,  by  ad- 
mitting the  doctrine  of  natural  religion,  natural  conscience, 
natural  notices,  etc.,  not  founded  upon  revelation,  or  do- 
rived  from  it  by  tradition,  they  give  up  the  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity at  once  to  the  infidels ;  who  may  justly  argue,  aa 
Mr.  Paine  in  fact  does  in  his  Age  of  Reason,  that  there  ia 
no  occasion  for  any  revelation  or  word  of  God,  if  man  cs*& 
discover  his  nature  and  perfections  from  his  works  alone. 
But  this  the  Bereans  argue  is  beyond  the  natural  powers 
of  human  reason ;  and  therefore  our  knowledge  of  God  is 
from  revelation  alone,  and  that  without  revelation  man 
would  never  have  entertained  an  idea  of  his  existence.  2. 
With  regard  to  faith  in  Christ,  and  assurance  of  salvation 
through  his  merits,  they  differ  from  almost  all  other  secta 
whatsoever.  These  they  reckon  inseparable,  or  rather  the 
same,  because  (say  they)  "  God  hath  expressly  declared, 
he  that  believeth  shall  be  saved ;  and  therefore  it  is  not 
only  absurd  but  impious,  and  in  a  manner  calling  God  a 
liar,  for  a  man  to  say,  I  believe  the  gospel,  but  have 
doubts,  nevertheless,  of  my  own  salvation."  With  regard 
to  the  various  distinctions  and  definitions  that  have  been 
given  of  different  kinds  of  faith,  they  argue  that  there  is 
nothing  incomprehensible  or  obscure  in  the  meaning  of 
this  word  as  used  in  Scripture ;  but  that  as  faith,  when 
applied  to  human  testimony,  signifies  neither  more  nor  lesa 
than  the  mere  simple  belief  of  that  testimony  as  true, 
upon  the  authority  of  the  testifier,  so,  when  applied  to  the 
testimony  of  God,  it  signifies  precisely  "  the  belief  of  hia 
testimony,  and  resting  upon  his  veracity  alone,  without 
any  kind  of  collateral  support  from  concurrence  of  any 


B  E  R  E  A  N  8 . 

other  evidence  or  testimony  whatever."  And  they  insist 
that,  as  this  faith  is  the  gift  of  God  alone,  so  the  person 
to  •whom  it  is  given  is  as  conscious  of  possessing  it  as  the 
being  to  whom  God  gives  life  is  of  being  alive ;  and  there- 
fore he  entertains  no  doubts  either  of  his  faith  or  his  con- 
sequent salvation  through  the  merits  of  Christ,  who  died 
and  rose  again  for  that  purpose.  In  a  word,  they  argue 
that  the  gospel  would  not  be  what  it  is  held  forth  to  be, 
glad  tidings  of  great  joy,  if  it  did  not  bring  full  personal 
assurance  of  eternal  salvation  to  the  believer ;  which  assu- 
rance, they  insist,  is  the  present  infallible  privilege  and 
portion  of  every  individual  believer  of  the  gospel.  3. 
Consistently  with  the  above  definition  of  faith,  they  say 
that  the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  has  alarmed 
and  puzzled  so  many  in  all  ages,  is  nothing  else  but  unbe- 
lief; and  that  the  expression  "it  shall  not  be  forgiven 
neither  in  this  world  nor  that  which  is  to  come,"  means 
only  that  a  person  dying  in  infidelity  would  not  be  for- 
given, neither  under  the  former  dispensation  by  Moses 
(the  then  present  dispensation,  kingdom,  or  government 
of  God),  nor  under  the  gospel  dispensation  which,  in  re- 
spect of  the  Mosaic,  was  a  kind  of  future  world  or  king- 
lorn  to  come.  4.  The  Bereans  interpret  a  great  part  of 
the  Old  Testament  prophecies,  and  in  particular  the  whole 
of  the  Psalms,  excepting  such  as  are  merely  historical  or 
laudatory,  to  be  typical  or  prophetical  of  Jesus  Christ,  hia 
sufferings,  atonement,  mediation,  and  kingdom ;  and  they 
esteem  it  a  gross  perversion  of  these  Psalms  and  prophe- 
cies to  apply  them  to  the  experiences  of  private  Christians. 
In  proof  of  this,  they  not  only  urge  the  words  of  the  apos- 
tle, that  no  prophecy  is  of  any  private  interpretation,  but 
they  insist  that  the  whole  of  the  quotations  from  the  an- 
cient prophecies  in  the  New  Testament,  and  particularly 
those  from  the  Psalms,  are  expressly  applied  to  Chriau 


BE  RE  AN  8.  407 

In  this  opinion  many  other  classes  of  Protestants  agree 
with  them.  5.  Of  the  absolute  all-superintending  sove- 
reignty of  the  Almighty,  the  Bereans  entertain  the  highest 
idea,  as  well  as  of  the  uninterrupted  exertion  thereof  over 
all  his  works,  in  heaven,,  earth,  and  hell,  however  unsearch- 
able by  his  creatures.  A  God  without  election,  they 
argue,  or  choice  in  all  his  works,  is  a  God  without  exist- 
ence, a  mere  idol,  a  nonentity.  And  to  deny  God's  elec- 
tion, purpose,  and  express  will  in  all  his  works,  is  to  make 
him  inferior  to  ourselves. 

As  to  their  practice  and  discipline,  they  consider  infant 
baptism  as  a  divine  ordinance,  instituted  in  the  room  of 
circumcision ;  and  think  it  absurd  to  suppose  that  infants, 
who,  all  agree,  are  admissible  to  the  kingdom  of  God  in 
heaven,  should  nevertheless  be  incapable  of  being  admitted 
into  his  visible  church  on  earth.  They  commemorate  the 
Lord's  Supper  generally  once  a  month ;  but  as  the  words 
of  the  institution  fix  no  particular  period,  they  sometimes 
celebrate  it  oftener,  and  sometimes  at  more  distant  periods, 
as  it  may  suit  their  general  convenience.  They  meet 
every  Lord's  day  for  the  purpose  of  preaching,  praying, 
and  exhorting  to  love  and  good  works.  With  regard  to 
admission  and  exclusion  of  members,  their  method  is  very 
simple :  when  any  person,  after  hearing  the  Berean  doc- 
trines, professes  his  belief  and  assurance  of  the  truths  of 
the  gospel,  and  desires  to  be  admitted  into  their  commu- 
nion, he  is  /teerfully  received  upon  his  profession,  what- 
ever may  have  been  his  former  manner  of  life.  But  if 
such  %  one  should  afterwards  draw  back  from  his  good 
profession  or  practice,  they  first  admonish  him,  and,  if 
that  has  no  effect,  they  leave  him  to  himself.  They  do 
not  think  that  they  have  any  power  to  deliver  a  backslid- 
ing brother  to  Satan ;  that  text,  and  other  similar  passa- 
ges, such  as,  "  Whatsoever  ye  shall  bind  on  earth  shall  be 


408  A  G  N  0  E-T  M . 

bound  in  heaven,"  etc.,  they  consider  as  restricted  to  the 
apostles,  and  to  the  inspired  testimony  alone,  and  not  to 
be  extended  to  any  church  on  earth,  or  any  number  of 
churches  or  of  Christians,  whether  decided  by  a  majority 
of  votes,  or  by  unanimous  voices..  Neither  do  they  think 
themselves  authorized,  as  a  Christian  church,  to  inquire 
into  each  other's  political  opinions,  any  more  than  to  exa- 
mine into  each  other's  notions  of  philosophy.  They  both 
recommend  and  practise,  as  a  Christian  duty,  submission 
to  lawful  authority ;  but  tney  do  not  think  that  a  man,  by 
becoming  a  Christian,  or  joining  their  society,  is  under 
any  obligation  by  the  rules  of  the  gospel  to  renounce  hia 
right  of  private  judgment  upon  matters  of  public  or  pri- 
vate importance.  Upon  all  such  subjects  they  allow  each 
other  to  think  and  act  as  each  may  see  it  his  duty ;  and 
they  require  nothing  more  of  the  members  than  a  uniform 
and  steady  profession  of  the  apostolic  faith,  and  a  suitable 
walk  and  conversation. 

It  is  said  that  their  doctrine  has  found  converts  in  vari- 
ous places  of  Scotland,  England,  and  America ;  and  that 
they  have  congregations  in  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Paisley, 
Stirling,  Crieff,  Dundee,  Arbroath,  Montrose,  Fettercairn, 
Aberdeen,  and  other  towns  in  Scotland,  as  well  as  in  Lon- 
don, and  various  places  in  England. 


AGNOET^. 

(from  ayvosw,  "to  be  ignorant  of,"),  a  sees 
which  appeared  about  370.  They  called  in  question  the 
omniscience  of  God;  alleging  that  he  knew  things  past 
only  by  memory,  and  things  future  only  by  an  uncertain 


ALBANENSES.  409 

prescience.  There  arose  another  sect  of  the  same  name 
in  the  sixth  century,  who  followed  Themistius,  deacon  of 
Alexandria.  They  maintained  that  Christ  was  ignorant 
of  certain  things,  and  particularly  of  the  time  of  the  day 
of  judgment.  It  is  supposed  they  built  their  hypothesis 
on  that  passage  in  Mark  xiii.  32: — "  Of  that  day  and  that 
hour  knoweth  no  man ;  no,  not  the  angels  which  are  in 
heaven,  neither  the  Son,  but  the  Father."  The  meaning 
of  which  most  probably  is,  that  this  was  not  known  to  the 
Messiah  himself  in  his  human  nature,  or  by  virtue  of  his 
unction,  as  any  part  of  the  mysteries  he  was  to  reveal ; 
for,  considering  him  as  God,  he  could  not  be  ignorant  of 
anything. 


ALBANENSES. 

ALBANENSES,  a  denomination  which  commenced  about 
the  year  796.  They  held,  with  the  Gnostics  and  Mani- 
cheans,  two  principles,  the  one  of  good  and  the  other  of 
evil.  They  denied  the  divinity  and  even  the  humanity  of 
Jesus  Christ;  asserting  that  he  was  not  truly  man,  did 
not  suffer  on  the  cross,  die,  rise  again,  nor  really  ascend 
into  heaven.  They  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrec- 
tion, affirmed  that  the  general  judgment  was  past,  and  that 
hell  torments  were  no  other  than  the  evils  we  feel  and 
suffer  in  this  life.  They  denied  free-will,  did  not  admit 
original  sin,  and  never  administered  baptism  to  infants. 
They  held  that  a  man  can  give  the  Holy  Spirit  of  himself, 
and  that  it  is  unlawful  for  a  Christian  to  take  an  oath. 

This  denomination  derived  their  name  from  the  place 
where  their  spiritual  rtler  resided. 

35 


410  LATITUDINARIANS. 


LATITUDINARIANS. 

LATITUDINARIAN,  a  person  not  conforming  to  any  par- 
ticular opinion  or  standard,  but  of  such  moderation  as  to 
suppose  that  people  will  be  admitted  into  heaven,  although 
of  different  persuasions.  The  term  was  more  especially 
applied  to  those  pacific  doctors  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
who  offered  themselves  as  mediators  between  the  more  vio- 
lent Episcopalians  and  the  rigid  Presbyterians  and  Inde- 
pendents, respecting  the  forms  of  Church  government, 
public  worship,  and  certain  religious  tenets,  more  espe- 
cially those  that  were  debated  between  the  Aiminians  and 
Calvinists.  The  chief  leaders  of  these  Latitudinariana 
were  Hales  and  Chillingworth ;  but  More,  Cudworth,  Gale, 
Whitchcot,  and  Tillotson  were  also  among  the  number. 
These  men,  although  firmly  attached  to  the  Church  of 
England,  did  not  go  so  far  as  to  look  upon  it  as  of  divine 
institution;  and  hence  they  maintained,  that  those  who 
followed  other  forms  of  government  and  worship,  were 
not  on  that  account  to  be  excluded  from  their  communion. 
As  to  the  doctrinal  part  of  religion,  they  took  the  system 
of  Episcopius  for  their  model,  and,  like  him,  reduced  the 
fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity  to  a  few  points  ;  and 
by  this  manner  of  proceeding  they  endeavored  to  show  the 
contending  parties  that  they  had  no  reason  to  oppose  each 
other  with  such  animosity  and  bitterness,  since  the  subjects 
of  their  debates  were  matters  of  an  indifferent  nature  with 
respect  to  salvation.  They  met,  however,  with  opposition 
for  their  pains,  and  were  branded  as  Atheists  and  Deists 
by  some,  and  as  Socinians  by  others ;  but  upon  the  resto- 
ration of  Charles  II.,  they  were  raised  to  the  first  digni- 
ties of  the  Church,  and  were  held  in  considerable  esteem. 


ORIQENISTS..  4U 


ORIGENISTS. 

THE  Origeriists  were  a  denomination  whicL  appeared  in 
•he  thiid  century,  who  derived  their  opinions  from  the 
writings  of  Origen,  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria,  and  a  man 
of  vast  and  uncommon  abilities,  who  interpreted  the  divine 
truths  of  religion  according  to  the  tenor  of  the  Platonic 
philosophy.  He  alleged  that  the  source  of  many  evils  lies 
in  adhering  to  the  literal  and  external  part  of  Scripture ; 
and  that  the  true  meaning  of  the  sacred  writers  was  to  be 
sought  in  a  mysterious  and  hidden  sense,  arising  from  the 
nature  of  things  themselves. 

The  principal  tenets  ascribed  to  Origen,  together  with  a 
few  of  the  reasons  made  use  of  in  their  defence,  are  com- 
prehended in  the  following  summary : — 

1.  That  there  is  a  pre-existent  state  of  human  souls. 
For  the  nature  of  the  soul  is  such  as  to  make  her  capable 
of  existing  eternally,  backward  as  well  as  forward,  because 
her  spiritual  essence,  as  such,  makes  it  impossible  that  she 
should,  either  through  age  or  violence,  be  dissolved ;  so 
that  nothing  is  wanting  to  her  existence  but  the  good  plea- 
sure of  him  from  whom  all  things  proceed.     And  if,  ac- 
cording to  the  Platonic  scheme,  we  assign  the  production 
of  all  things  to  the  exuberant  fulness  of  life  in  the  Deity, 
which,  through  the  blessed  necessity  of  his  communicative 
nature,  empties  itself  into  all  possibilities  of  being,  as  into 
BO  many  capable  receptacles,  we  must  suppose  her  exist- 
ence in  a  sense  necessary,  and  in  a  degree  co-eternal  with 
God. 

2.  That  souls  were  condemned  to  animate  mortal  bodies 
in  order  to  expiate  faults  they  had  committed  in  a  pro- 


412  9RIGENISTS. 

exisient  state ;  for  we  may  be  assured,  from  the  infinite 
goodness  of  their  Creator,  that  they  were  at  first  joined 
to  the  purest  matter,  and  placed  in  those  regions  of  the 
universe  which  were  most  suitable  to  the  purity  of  essence 
they  then  possessed.  For  that  the  souls  of  men  are  an 
order  of  essentially  incorporate  spirits,  their  deep  immer- 
sion into  terrestrial  matter,  the  modification  of  all  their 
operations  by  it,  and  the  heavenly  body  promised  in  the 
gospel,  as  the  highest  perfection  of  our  renewed  nature, 
clearly  evince.  Therefore,  if  our  souls  existed  before  they 
appeared  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  they  were  placed  in  a 
purer  element,  and  enjoyed  far  greater  degrees  of  happi- 
ness. And  certainly  He,  whose  overflowing  goodness 
brought  them  into  existence,  would  not  deprive  them  of 
their  felicity,  till  by  their  mutability  they  rendered  them 
selves  less  pure  in  the  whole  extent  of  their  powers,  and 
became  disposed  for  the  susception  of  such  a  degree  of 
corporeal  life  as  was  exactly  answerable  to  their  present 
disposition  of  spirit.  Hence  it  was  necessary  that  they 
should  become  terrestrial  men. 

3.  That  the  soul  of  Christ  was  united  to  the  Word  be- 
fore the  incarnation.  For  the  Scriptures  teach  us  that 
the  soul  of  the  Messiah  was  created  before  the  beginning 
of  the  world,  Phil.  ii.  5,  7.  This  text  must  be  understood 
of  Christ's  human  soul,  because  it  is  unusual  to  propound 
the  Deity  as  an  example  of  humility  in  Scripture.  Though 
the  humanity  of  Christ  was  so  God-like,  he  emptied  him- 
self of  this  fulness  of  life  and  glory,  to  take  upon  him 
the  form  of  a  servant.  It  was  this  Messiah  who  conversed 
with  the  patriarchs  under  a  human  form ;  it  was  he  who 
appeared  to  Moses  upon  the  Holy  Mount ;  it  was  he  who 
spoke  to  the  prophets  under  a  visible  appearance ;  and  it 
is  he  who  will  at  last  come  in  triumph  upon  the  clouds  to 
restore  the  universe  to  its  primitive  splendor  and  felicity. 


ORIGENISTS.  413 

4.  That  at  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  we  snail  be 
clothed  with  ethereal  bodies.     For  the   elements  of  our 
terrestrial  compositions  are  such  as  almost  fatally  entangle 
us  in  vice,  passion,  and  misery.    The  purer  the  vehicle  the 
BOU!  is  united  with,  the  more  perfect  is  her  life  and  opera- 
tions.    Besides,    the    Supreme    Goodness   who   made   all 
things,  assures  us  he  made  all  things  best  at  first,  and 
therefore  his  recovery  of  us  to  our  lost  happiness  (which 
is  the  design  of  the  gospel)  must  restore  us  to  our  better 
bodies   and  happier   habitations,  which  is   evident   from 
1  Cor.  xv.  49 ;  2  Cor.  v.  1 ;  and  other  texts  of  Scripture. 

5.  That,  after  long  periods  of  time,  the  damned  shall 
be  released  from  their  torments,  and  restored  to  a  new 
state  of  probation.     For  the  Deity  has  such  reserves  in 
his  gracious   providence,  as  will  vindicate  his   sovereign 
goodness  and  wisdom  from  all  disparagement.     Expiatory 
pains  are  a  part  of  his  adorable  plan ;  for  this  sharper 
kind  of  favor  has  a  righteous  place  in  such  creatures  as 
are  by  nature  mutable.     Though  sin  has  extinguished  or 
silenced  the  divine  life,  yet  it  has  not  destroyed  the  facul- 
ties of  reason  and  understanding,  consideration  and  me- 
mory, which  will  serve  the  life  which  is  most  powerful.    If, 
therefore,  the  vigorous  attraction  of  the  sensual  nature  be 
abated  by  a  ceaseless  pain,  these  powers  may  resume  the 
sense  of  a  better  life  and  nature.     As  in  the  material  sys- 
tem there  is  a  gravitation  of  the  less  bodies  towards  the 
greater,  there  must  of  necessity  be  something  analogoua 
to  this  in  the  intellectual  system ;  and  since  the  spirits 
created  by  God  are  emanations  and  streams  from  his  own 
abyss  of  being,  and  as  self-existent  power  must  needs  sub- 
ject all  beings  to  itself,  the  Deity  could  not  but  impress 
upon  her  intimate  natures  and  substances  a  central  ten- 
dency towards  himself;  an  essential  principle  of  re-uniou 
to  their  great  original. 

35* 


414 


PETROBRUSSIANS. 


6.  That  the  earth,  after  its  conflagration,  shall  become 
habitable  again,  and  be  the  mansion  of  men  and  animals, 
and  that  in  eternal  vicissitudes.  For  it  is  thus  expressed 
in  Isaiah  :  Behold  1  make  new  heavens  and  a  new  earth, 
£c.,  and  in  Heb.  i.  10,  12,  Thou,  Lord,  in  the  beginning 
hast  laid  the  foundations  of  the  earth;  as  a  vesture  shalt 
thou  change  them,  and  they  shall  be  changed,  frc.  Where 
there  is  only  a  change  the  substance  is  not  destroyed,  this 
change  being  only  as  that  of  a  garment  worn  out  and  de- 
caying. The  fashion  of  the  world  passes  away  like  a 
turning  scene,  to  exhibit  a  fresh  and  new  representation 
of  things ;  and  if  only  the  present  dress  and  appearance 
of  things  go  off,  the  substance  is  supposed  to  remain 
entire. 


PETROBRUSSIANS. 

PETROBRUSSIANS,  a  sect  founded  about  the  year  1110, 
in  Languedoc  and  Provence,  by  Peter  de  Bruys,  who  made 
the  most  laudable  attempts  to  reform  the  abuses  and  to 
remove  the  superstitions  that  disfigured  the  beautiful  sim- 
plicity of  the  Gospel;  though  not  without  a  mixture  of 
fanaticism.  The  following  tenets  were  held  by  him  and 
his  disciples  :  —  1.  That  no  persons  whatever  were  to  be 
baptized  before  they  were  come  to  the  full  use  of  their 
reason.  2.  That  it  was  an  idle  superstition  to  build 
churches  for  the  service  of  God,  who  will  accept  of  a  sin- 
cere worship  wherever  it  is  offered ;  and  that,  therefore, 
euch  churches  as  had  already  been  erected,  were  to  be 
pulled  down  and  destroyed.  3.  That  the  crucifixes,  as 
instruments  of  superstition,  deserved  the  same  fate.  4. 
That  the  real  body  and  blood  of  Christ  were  not  exhibited 


PATTLI ANIST8.  415 

in  the  eucharist,  but  were  merely  represented  in  that  ordi- 
nance. 5.  That  the  oblations,  prayers,  and  good  worka 
of  the  living,  could  be  in  no  respect  advantageous  to  the 
dead.  The  founder  of  this  sect,  after  a  laborious  ministry 
«>f  twenty  years,  was  burnt  in  the  year  1130,  by  an  enraged 
populace  set  on  by  the  clergy,  whose  traffic  was  in  danger 
Jrom  the  enterprising  spirit  of  this  new  reformer. 


PAULIANISTS. 

THE  Paulianists  were  a  sect  so  called  from  their  founder, 
Paulus  Samosatenus,  a  native  of  Samosata,  elected  bishop 
of  Antioch  in  262.  His  doctrine  seems  to  have  amounted 
to  this :  that  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  exist  in  God  in 
th*  same  manner  as  the  faculties  of  reason  and  activity  do 
in  man ;  that  Christ  was  born  a  mere  man ;  but  that  the 
reason  or  wisdom  of  the  Father  descended  into  him,  and 
by  him  wrought  miracles  upon  earth,  and  instructed  the 
nations ;  and,  finally,  that  on  account  of  this  union  of  the 
Divine  Word  with  the  man  Jesus,  Christ  might,  though 
improperly,  be  called  God.  It  is  also  said  that  he  did  not 
baptize  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  the  Son,  &c. ;  for 
vshich  reason  the  council  of  Nice  ordered  those  baptized 
by  him  to  be  re-baptized.  Being  condemned  by  Dionysiua 
Alexandrinus  in  a  council,  he  abjured  his  errors  to  avoid 
leposition;  but  soon  after  he  resumed  them,  and  was 
actually  deposed  by  another  council  in  269.  He  may  be 
considered  as  the  father  of  the  modern  Socinians ;  and  hia 
errors  are  severely  condemned  by  the  council  of  Nice, 
whose  creed  differs  a  little  from  that  now  used  under  the 


416  PAULICIANS. 

same  name  in  the  church  of  England.  The  creed  agreed 
upon  by  the  Nicene  fathers  with  a  view  to  the  errors  of 
Paulus  Samosatenus  concludes  thus :  u  But  those  who  say 
there  was  a  time  when  he  was  not,  and  that  he  was  not 
before  he  was  born,  the  catholic  and  apostolic  church 
anathematize." 


PAULICIANS. 

THE  Paulicians  were  a  branch  of  the  ancient  Manichees, 
eo  called  from  their  founder,  one  Paulus,  an  Armenian,  in 
the  seventh  century,  who,  with  his  brother  John,  both  of 
Samosata,  formed  this  sect :  though  others  are  of  opinion 
that  they  were  thus  called  from  another  Paul,  an  Armenian 
by  birth,  who  lived  under  the  reign  of  Justinian  II,  In 
the  seventh  century,  a  zealot,  called  Constantine,  revived 
this  drooping  sect,  which  had  suffered  much  from  the 
violence  of  its  adversaries,  and  was  ready  to  expire  under 
the  severity  of  the  imperial  edicts,  and  that  zeal  with 
which  they  were  carried  into  execution.  The  Paulicians, 
however,  by  their  number,  and  the  countenance  of  the 
emperor  Nicephorus,  became  formidable  to  all  the  East. 
But  the  cruel  rage  of  persecution,  which  had  for  some 
years  been  suspended,  broke  forth  with  redoubled  violence 
under  the  reigns  of  Michael  Curopalates,  and  Leo  the 
Armenian,  who  inflicted  capital  punishment  on  such  of  the 
Paulicians  as  refused  to  return  into  the  bosom  of  the 
church.  The  empress  Theodora,  tutoress  of  the  emperor 
Michael,  in  845,  would  oblige  them  either  to  be  converted, 
or  to  quit  the  empire ;  upon  which  several  of  them  were 
put  to  death,  and  more  retired  among  the  Saracens ;  but 
they  were  neither  all  exterminated  nor  banished. 


PACLICIANS.  417 

Ul  on  this,  they  entered  into  a  league  with  the  Saracens, 
a\id  i;hoosing  for  their  chief  an  officer  of  the  greatest  reso- 
luxloii  and  valor,  whose  name  was  Carbeus,  they  declared 
agaVist  the  Greeks  a  war,  which  was  carried  on  for  fifty 
yea.s  with   the   greatest   vehemence   and   fury.     During 
ther-e  commotions,  some  Puulicians,  towards  the  coLclusica 
of  <  his  century,  spread  abroad  their  doctrines  among  the 
Bu'  Brians  :  many  of  them,  either  from  a  principle  of  zeal 
for  the  propagation  of  their  opinions,  or  from  a  natural 
desire  of  flying  from  the  persecution  which  they  suffered 
ur-der  the  Grecian  yoke,  retired  about  the  close  of  the 
ehventh  century  from  Bulgaria  and  Thrace,  and  formed 
settlements  in  other  countries.     Their  first  migration  was 
nuo  Italy ;  whence,  in  process  of  time,  they  sent  colonies 
into  almost  all  the  other  provinces  of  Europe,  and  formed 
gradually  a  considerable  number  of  religious  assemblies, 
who  adhered  to  their  doctrine,  and  who  were  afterwards 
persecuted   with    the   utmost   vehemence  by  the   Roman 
pontiffs.     In  Italy  they  were  called  Patarini,  from  a  cer- 
tain place  called  Pataria,  being  a  part   of  the  city  of 
Milan,  where  they  held  their  assemblies ;  and  Grathari,  or 
Gazari,  from  Gazaria,  or  the  Lesser  Tartary.     In  France 
they  were  called  Albigenses,  though  their   faith  differed 
widely  from  that  of  the  Albigenses  whom  Protestant  writers 
generally    vindicate.     The    first    religious    assembly   the 
Paulicians  had  formed  in  Europe,  is  said  to  have  been  dis- 
covered at  Orleans  in  1017,  under  the  reign  of  Robert, 
when  many  of  them  were  condemned  to  be  burnt  alive. 
The  ancient  Paulicians,  according  to  Photius,  expressed 
the  utmost  abhorrence  of  Manes  and  his  doctrine.     The 
Greek  writers  comprise  their  errors  under  the  six  follow- 
ing particulars  :  —  1.  They  denied  that  this  inferior  arid 
visible  \vorld  is  the  production  of  the  Supn  me  Being ;  and 
they  distinguish  the  Creator  of  the  world  and  of  human 

2B 


418  LIBERTINES. 

bodies  from  the  Most  High  God,  who  dwells  in  the  hea- 
vens ;  and  hence  some  have  been  led  to  conceive  that 
they  were  a  branch  of  the  Gnostics  rather  than  of  the 
Manichseans.  2.  They  treated  contemptuously  the  Virgin 
Mary,  or,  according  to  the  usual  manner  of  speaking 
among  the  Greeks,  they  refused  to  adore  and  worship  her. 
3.  They  refused  to  celebrate  the  institution  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  4.  They  loaded  the  cross  of  Christ  with  contempt 
and  reproach,  by  which  we  are  only  to  understand  that 
they  refused  to  follow  the  absurd  and  superstitious  practice 
of  the  Greeks,  who  paid  to  the  pretended  wood  of  the 
cross  a  certain  sort  of  religious  homage.  5.  They  rejected, 
after  the  example  of  the  greatest  part  of  the  Gnostics,  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  looked  upon  the  writers 
of  that  sacred  history  as  inspired  by  the  Creator  of  this 
world,  and  not  by  the  Supreme  God.  6.  They  excluded 
presbyters  and  elders  from  all  part  in  the  administration 
of.  the  church. 


LIBERTINES. 

THE  Libertines  were  a  religious  sect  which  arose  in  the 
year  1525,  whose  principal  tenets  were,  that  the  Deity  was 
the  sole  operating  cause  in  the  mind  of  man,  and  the  im- 
mediate author  of  all  human  actions ;  that,  consequently, 
the  distinctions  of  good  and  evil,  which  had  been  esta- 
blished with  regard  to  those  actions,  were  false  and 
groundless,  and  that  men  could  not,  properly  speaking, 
commit  sin ;  that  religion  consisted  in  the  union  of  the 
spirit,  or  rational  soul,  with  the  Supreme  Being;  that  all 
those  who  had  attained  this  happy  union,  by  sublime  con- 


LIBERTINES.  419 

templation  and  elevation  of  uincl,  were  then  allowed  to 
indulge,  without  exception  or  restraint,  their  appetites  or 
passions  ;  that  all  their  actions  and  pursuits  were  then  per- 
fectly innocent ;  and  that,  after  the  death  of  the  body, 
they  were  to  be  united  to  the  Deity.  They  likewise  said 
that  Jesus  Christ  was  nothing  but  a  mere  je  ne  scai  quoi, 
composed  of  the  spirit  of  God  and  the  opinion  of  men. 
These  maxims  occasioned  their  being  called  Libertines, 
and  the  word  has  been  used  in  an  ill  sense  ever  since. 
This  sect  spread  principally  in  Holland  and  Brabant 
Their  leaders  were  one  Quintin,  a  Picard,  Pockesius,  Ruf- 
fus,  and  another,  called  Chopin,  who  joined  with  Quintin, 
and  became  his  disciple.  They  obtained  footing  in  France 
through  the  favor  and  protection  of  Margaret,  Queen  of 
Navarre,  and  sister  to  Francis  I.,  and  found  patrons  in 
several  of  the  reformed  churches. 

The  Libertines  of  Geneva  were  a  cabal  of  rakes  rather 
than  fanatics ;  for  they  made  no  pretence  to  any  religious 
system,  but  pleaded  only  for  the  liberty  of  leading  volup- 
tuous and  immoral  lives.     This  cabal  was  composed  of  a 
certain  number  of  licentious  citizens,  who  could  not  bear 
the  severe  discipline  of  Calvin.     There  were  also  among 
them  several  who  were  not  only  notorious  for  their  disso- 
lute and  scandalous  manner  of  living,  but. also  for  their 
itheistical  impiety  and  contempt  of  all  religion.     To  this 
lious  class  belonged  one  Gruet,  who  denied  the  divinity 
)f  the  Christian  religion,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the 
lifference  between  moral  good  and  evil,  and  rejected  with 
lisdain  the  doctrines   that   are   held  most  sacred  among 
/hristians ;  for  which  impieties  he  was  at  last  brought  be- 
are  the  civil  tribunal,  in  the  year  1550,  and  condemned  to 
ieath. 


420  INGHAMITSS. 


INGHAMITES, 

A  DENOMINATION  of  Calvinistic  Dissenters,  who  aie  the 
followers  of  B.  Ingham,  Esq.,  who  in  the  last  century  was 
a  character  of  great  note  in  the  north  of  England.  Ahout 
the  year  1785,  Mr.  Ingham  was  at  Queen's  College,  with 
Mr.  Hervey  and  other  friends,  but  soon  afterwards  adopted 
the  religious  opinions  and  zeal  of  Wesley  and  Whitfield. 
We  do  not  know  the  cause  of  his  separation  from  these 
eminent  men  ;  but  it  seems  in  a  few  years  afterwards  he 
became  the  leader  of  numerous  societies,  distinct  from  the 
Methodists.  They  received  their  members  by  lot,  and 
required  them  to  declare  before  the  church  their  experi- 
ence, that  the  whole  society  might  judge  of  the  gracious 
change  which  had  been  wrought  upon  their  hearts.  It 
happened  in  a  few  years,  that  some  individuals  who  were 
much  respected,  and  who  applied  for  admission,  instead  of 
speaking  of  their  own  attainments,  or  the  comfortable  im- 
pression on  their  minds,  which  they  only  considered  as 
productive  of  strife  and  vainglory,  declared  their  only 
hope  was  the, finished  work  of  Jesus  Christ;  as  to  them- 
selves they  were  sensible  of  their  own  vileness.  Such 
confessions  as  this  threw  the  congregation  into  some  con- 
fusion, which  was  considerably  increased  when  they  found 
that,  on  their  having  recourse  as  usual  to  the  lot,  that 
there  were  votes  against  their  admission,  which  was  consi- 
dered as  a  rejection  from  the  Lord.  On  this  they  were 
led  to  examine  more  particularly  both  their  church  order 
and  doctrines.  After  this  time,  Mr.  Ingham  became  much 
more  orthodox  in  his  sentiments,  and  new-modelled  his 
churches.  The  book  which  he  published  is  in  general  well 


HATTE  MISTS.  42] 

thought  of  by  the  Independents.  He  contends  very 
strongly  for  salvation  by  the  imputation  of  Christ's  right- 
eousness ;  and  as  to  doctrine,  the  chief  point  wherein  the 
Ingh;i  mites  differ  from  the  Independents  is  respecting  the 
Trinity.  The  common  manner  of  speaking  of  the  Divine 
Three  as  distinct  persons,  they  decisively  condemn.  They 
do  not  consider  a  plurality  of  elders  as  necessary  in  a 
church  to  administer  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  other  respects 
they  much  esteem  the  writings  of  Mr.  R.  Sandeman. 
Their  numbers  have  not  been  so  numerous  since  they  be- 
came more  strict  in  their  public  worship. 


HATTEMISTS. 

Tins  is  the  name  of  a  modern  Dutch  sect,  so  called 
from  Pontian  Van  Hattem,  a  minister  in  the  province  of 
Zealand,  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  who,  being 
addicted  to  the  sentiments  of  Spinosa,  was  on  that  account 
degraded  from  his  pastoral  office.  The  Verschorists  and 
Hattemists  resemble  each  other  in  their  religious  systems, 
though  they  never  so  entirely  agreed  as  to  form  one  com- 
munion. The  founders  of  these  sects  deduced  from  the 
doctrine  of  absolute  decrees  a  system  of  fatal  and  uncon- 
trollable necessity ;  they  denied  the  difference  between 
moral  good  and  evil,  and  the  corruption  of  human  nature ; 
from  whence  they  farther  concluded,  that  mankind  were 
under  no  sort  of  obligation  to  correct  their  manners,  to 
improve  their  minds,  or  to  obey  the  divine  laws ;  that  the 
whole  of  religion  consisted  not  in  acting,  but  in  suffering; 
and  that  all  the  precepts  of  Jesus  Christ  are  reducible  to 
this  one,  that  we  bear  with  cheerfulness*  and  patience  the 
36 


422  EUNOMIANS. 

events  that  happen  to  us  through  the  divine  will,  and  make 
it  our  constant  and  only  study  to  maintain  a  permanent 
tranquillity  of  mind.  Thus  far  they  agreed;  but  the 
Huttemists  further  affirmed,  that  Christ  made  no  expiation 
for  the  sins  of  men  by  his  death ;  but  had  only  suggested 
to  us,  by  his  mediation,  that  there  was  nothing  in  us  that 
could  offend  the  Deity :  this,  they  say,  was  Christ's  man- 
ner of  justifying  his  servants,  and  presenting  them  blame- 
less before  the  tribunal  of  God.  It  was  one  of  their  dis 
tiuguished  tenets,  that  God  does  not  punish  men  for  their 
Bins,  but  by  their  sins.  These  two  sects,  says  Mosheim, 
Btill  subsist,  though  they  no  longer  bear  the  name  of  their 
founders. 


EUNOMIANS. 

THE  Eunomians  were  a  sect  in  the  fourth  century.  They 
were  a  branch  of  Arians,  and  took  their  name  from  Euno- 
mius,  bishop  of  Cyzicus.  Cave,  in  his  Historia  Literaria, 
Vol.  i.  p.  223,  gives  the  following  account  of  their  faith: 
"  There  is  one  God,  uncreated  and  without  beginning ;  who 
has  nothing  existing  before  him,  for  nothing  can  exist  be- 
fore what  is  uncreated  ;  nor  with  him,  for  what  is  uncreated 
must  be  one ;  nor  in  him,  for  God  is  a  simple  and  uncom 
pounded  being.  This  one  simple  and  eternal  being  is  God, 
the  creator  and  ordainer  of  all  things :  first,  indeed,  aLd 
principally  of  his  only  begotten  Son ;  and  then  through 
him  of  all  other  things.  For  God  begat,  created,  and  made 
the  Son  only  by  his  direct  operation  and  power,  before  all 
things,  and  every  other  creature  ;  not  producing,  however, 
any  being  like  himself,  or  imparting  any  of  his  own  proper 


EUCHITES.  42£ 

Bubstance  to  the  Son ;  for  God  is  immortal,  uniform,  indi- 
visible ;  and  therefore  cannot  communicate  any  part  of  hia 
own  proper  substance  to  another.  He  alone  is  unbegotten; 
and  it  is  impossible  that  any  other  being  should  be  formed 
of  an  unbegotten  substance.  He  did  not  use  his  own  sub- 
stance in  begetting  the  Son,  but  his  will  only ;  nor  did  he 
beget  him  in  the  likeness  of  his  substance,  but  according 
to  his  own  good  pleasure  ;  he  then  created  the  Holy  Spirit, 
the  first  and  greatest  of  all  spirits,  by  his  own  power,  in 
deed  and  operation  mediately  ;  yet  by  the  immediate  power 
and  operation  of  the  Son.  After  the  Holy  Spirit,  he  created 
all  other  things,  in  heaven  and  in  earth,  visible  and  invisi- 
ble, corporeal  and  incorporeal,  mediately  by  himself,  by 
the  power  and  operation  of  the  Son,  &c."  The  reader 
will  evidently  see  how  near  these  tenets  are  to  those  of 
Arianism. 


EUCHITES. 

THE  Euchites,  or  Euchitae,  were  a  sect  of  ancient  here- 
tics, who  were  first  formed  into  a  religious  body  towards 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  though  their  doctrine  and 
discipline  subsisted  in  Syria,  Egypt,  and  other  eastern  coun- 
tries, before  the  birth  of  Christ :  they  were  thus  called  be- 
•ause  they  prayed  without  ceasing,  imagining  that  prayer 
ilone  was  sufficient  to  save  them.  They  were  a  sort  of 
mystics,  who  imagined,  according  to  the  oriental  notion, 
that  two  souls  resided  in  man,  the  one  good  and  the  other 
evil ;  and  who  were  zealous  in  expelling  the.  evil  soul  or 
demon,  and  hastening  the  return  of  the  good  Spirit  of  God 
by  contemplation,  prayer,  and  singing  of  hymns.  They 


424  EBIONITES  . 

also  embraced  opinions  nearly  resembling  tbe  Manichean 
doctrine,  and  which  they  derived  from  the  tenets  of  the 
oriental  philosophy.  The  same  denomination  was  used  in 
the  twelfth  century  to  denote  certain  fanatics  who  infested 
tbe  Greek  and  Eastern  churches,  and  who  were  charged 
with  believing  a  double  Trinity,  rejecting  wedlock,  abstain 
ing  from  flesh,  treating  with  contempt  the  sacraments  of 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  the  various  branches 
of  external  worship,  and  placing  the  essence  of  religion 
solely  in  external  prayer;  and  maintaining  the  efficacy  of 
perpetual  supplications  to  the  Supreme  Being  for  expelling 
an  evil  being  or  genius,  which  dwelt  in  the  breast  of  every 
mortal.  This  sect  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a  person 
called  Lueopetrus,  whose  chief  disciple  was  named  Tychicus. 
By  degrees  it  became  a  general  and  invidious  appellation 
for  persons  of  eminent  piety,  and  zeal  for  genuine  Chris- 
tianity, who  opposed  the  vicious  practices  and  insolent 
tyranny  of  the  priesthood,  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Latins  comprehended  all  the  adversaries  of  the  Roman 
pontiff  under  tbe  general  terms  of  Albigenses  and  Wal- 
denses. 


EBIONITES, 

THE  Ebionites  were  ancient  heretics,  who  rose  in  the 
church  in  the  very  first  age  thereof,  and  formed  themselves 
into  a  sect  in  the  second  century,  denying  the  divinity  of 
Jesus  Christ.  Origen  takes  them  to  have  been  so  called 
from  the  Hebrew  word  ebion,  which  in  that  languoge  sig- 
nifies poor /  because,  says  he,  they  were  poor  in  sense  and 
wanting  understanding.  Eusebius,  with  a  view  to  the  same 
etymology,  is  of  opinion  chey  were  thus  called,  as  having 


EBIONITES.  425 

poor  thoughts  of  Jesus  Christ,  taking  him  for  no  more  than 
A  mere  man.  It  is  more  probable  the  Jews  gave  this  ap- 
Dellation  to  the  Christians  in  general  out  of  contempt; 
because,  in  the  first  times,  there  were  few  but  poor  people 
that  embraced  the  Christian  religion. 

The  Ebionites  were  little  else  than  a  branch  of  the  Naza- 
renes,  only  that  they  altered  and  corrupted,  in  many  things, 
the  purity  of  the  faith  held  among  the  first  adherents  to 
Christianity.  For  this  reason,  Origen  distinguishes  two 
kinds  of  Ebionites  in  his  answer  to  Celsus :  the  one  believed 
that  Jesus  Christ  was  born  of  a  virgin  ;  and  the  other,  that 
he  was  born  after  the  manner  of  other  men.  The  first  were 
orthodox  to  everything,  except  that  to  the  Christian  doc- 
trine they  joined  the  ceremonies  of  the  Jewish  law,  with  the 
Jews,  Samaritans,  and  Nazarenes,  together  with  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  Pharisees.  They  differed  from  the  Nazarenes, 
however,  in  several  things,  chiefly  as  to  what  regards  the 
authority  of  the  sacred  writings;  for  the  Nazarenes  re- 
ceived all  for  Scripture  contained  in  the  Jewish  canon ; 
whereas  the  Ebionites  rejected  all  the  prophets,  and  held 
the  very  names  of  David,  Solomon,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and 
Ezekiel,  in  abhorrence.  They  also  rejected  all  St.  Paul's 
epistles,  whom  they  treated  with  the  utmost  disrespect. 
They  received  nothing  of  the  Old  Testament  but  the  Pen- 
tateuch. They  agreed  with  the  Nazarenes,  in  using  the 
Hebrew  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  otherwise  called  the  Gospel 
of  the  twelve  apostles ;  but  they  corrupted  their  copy  in 
abundance  of  places ;  and  particularly  had  left  out  tht> 
genealogy  of  our  Saviour,  which  was  preserved  entire  ii. 
that  of  the  Nazarenes,  and  even  in  those  used  by  the 
Corinthians. 

Besides  the  Hebrew  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  the  Ebion 
ites  had  adopted  several  other  books  under  the  title  of  St. 
Tames,  John,  and  the  other  apostles ;  they  also  made  use 

36* 


126  DONATISTS. 

of  the  travels  of  St.  Peter,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been 
written  by  St.  Clement ;  but  had  altered  them  so,  that  there 
was  scarce  anything  of  truth  left  in  them.  They  even  made 
that  saint  tell  a  number  of  falsehoods,  the  better  to  autho- 
rize their  own  practices, 


DONATISTS. 

THE  Donatists  were  ancient  schismatics,  in  Africa  so 
denominated  from  their  leader,  Donatus.  They  had  their 
origin  in  the  year  311,  when,  in  the  room  of  Mensurius, 
who  died  in  that  year,  on  his  return  to  Rome,  Cecilian  was 
elected  bishop  of  Carthage,  and  consecrated,  without  the 
concurrence  of  the  Numidian  bishops,  by  those  of  Africa 
alone,  whom  the  people  refused  to  acknowledge,  and  to 
whom  they  opposed  Majorinus,  who  accordingly  was  or 
dained  by  Donatus,  bishop  of  Casse  Nigrae. 

They  were  condemned  in  a  council  held  at  Rome,  two 
years  after  their  separation ;  and  afterwards  in  another  at 
Aries,  the  year  following ;  and  again  at  Milan,  before  Con- 
Btantine  the  Great,  in  316,  who  deprived  them  of  theii 
churches,  and  sent  their  seditious  bishops  into  banishment, 
and  punished  some  of  them  with  death.  Their  cause  was 
espoused  by  another  Donatus,  called  the  Great,  the  prin- 
cipal bishop  of  that  sect,  who,  with  numbers  of  his  follow- 
ers, was  exiled  by  order  of  Constans.  Many  of  them  were 
punished  with  great  severity.  However,  after  the  accession 
of  Julian  to  the  throne  in  362,  they  were  permitted  to  re- 
turn, and  restored  to  their  former  liberty. 

Gratian  published  several  edicts  against  them,  and  in  377 
deprived  them  of  their  churches,  and  prohibited  all  their 


DONATISTS.  42? 

assemblies.  But,  notwithstanding  the  severities  they  suf- 
fered, it  appears  that  they  had  a  very  considerable  number 
of  churches  towards  the  close  of  this  century ;  but  at  this 
time  they  began  to  decline  on  account  of  a  schism  among 
themselves,  occasioned  by  the  election  of  two  bishops  in  the 
room  of  Parmenian,  the  successor  of  Donatus  :  one  party 
elected  Primian,  and  were  called  Primianists ;  and  an- 
other, Maximinian,  and  were  called  Maximinianists.  Their 
decline  was  also  precipitated  by  the  zealous  opposition  of 
St.  Augustine,  and  by  the  violent  measures  which  were 
pursued  against  them  by  order  of  the  emperor  Honorius, 
at  the  solicitation  of  two  councils  held  at  Carthage,  the  one 
in  404,  and  the  other  in  411.  Many  of  them  were  fined, 
their  bishops  were  banished,  and  some  put  to  death. 

This  sect  revived  and  m  Jtiplied  under  the  protection 
of  the  Vandals,  who  invaded  Africa  in  4-7,  and  toot  pos- 
session of  this  province  ;  but  it  sunk  again  under  new  seve- 
rities, when  their  empire  was  overturned,  in  534.  Never- 
theless, they  remained  in  a  separate  body  till  the  close  of 
thi«  century,  when  Gregory,  the  Roman  pontiff,  used  various 
methods  for  suppressing  them  :  his  zeal  succeeded,  and  there 
are  few  traces  to  be  found  of  the  Donatists  after  this  pe- 
riod. They  were  distinguished  by  other  appellations,  as 
Circumcelliones,  Montenses  or  Mountaineers,  Campetes, 
Rupites,  &c.  They  held  three  councils,  that  of  Cita  in 
Nuinidia,  and  two  at  Carthage. 

The  Douatists,  it  is  said,  held  that  baptism  conferred  out 
of  the  church,  that  is,  out  of  their  sect,  was  null ;  and 
accordingly  they  re-baptized  those  who  joined  their  party 
from  other  churches,  they  also  re-ordained  their  ministers. 
Donatus  seems  likewise  to  have  embraced  the  doctrine  of 
the  Arians  ;  though  St.  Augustine  affirms  that  the  Donatista 
in  this  point  kept  clear  of  the  errors  of  their  leader. 


428  DEISTS. 


DEISTS. 

THE  Deists  are  a  class  of  people  whose  distinguishing 
character  it  is  not  to  profess  any  particular  form  or  system 
of  religion,  but  only  to  acknowledge  the  existence  of  a 
God,  and  to  follow  the  light  and  law  of  Nature,  rejecting 
revelation  and  opposing  Christianity.  The  name  of  Deists 
Beems  to  have  been  first  assumed  as  the  denomination  of  a 
party,  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  by  some 
gentlemen  in  France  and  Italy,  who  were  desirous  of  thus 
disguising  their  opposition  to  Christianity  by  a  more  honor- 
able appellation  than  that  of  atheists.  Viret,  an  eminent 
reformer,  mentions  certain  persons  in  his  epistle  dedica- 
tory, prefixed  to  the  second  volume  of  his  Instruction 
Chretienne,  published  in  1553,  who  called  themselves  by  a 
new  name,  that  of  Deists.  These,  he  tells  us,  professed 
to  believe  in  God,  but  showed  no  regard  to  Jesus  Christ, 
and  considered  the  doctrines  of  the  apostles  and  evangelists 
as  fables  and  dreams.  He  adds,  that  they  laughed  at  all 
religion,  though  they  outwardly  conformed  to  the  religion 
of  those  with  whom  they  lived,  or  whom  they  wished  to 
please,  or  feared  to  offend.  Some,  he  observed,  professed 
to  believe  the  immortality  of  the  soul ;  others  denied  both 
this  doctrine  and  that  of  providence. 

Many  of  them  were  considered  as  persons  of  acute  and 
subtle  genius,  and  took  pains  in  disseminating  their  notions. 
The  Deists  hold  that,  considering  the  multiplicity  of  reli- 
gions, the  numerous  pretences  to  revelation,  and  the  pre- 
carious arguments  generally  advanced  in  proof  thereof, 
the  best  and  surest  way  is  to  return  to  the  simplicity  of 
nature,  and  the  belief  of  one  God;  which  id  the  only 


DEISTS.  429 

truth  agreed  to  by  all  nations.  They  complain  that  the 
freedom  of  thinking  and  reasoning  is  oppressed  under  the 
yoke  of  religion,  and  that  the  minds  of  men  are  tyrannized 
over  by  the  necessity  imposed  upon  them  of  believing  in- 
conceivable mysteries ;  and  contend  that  nothing  should 
be  required  to  be  assented  to  or  believed  but  what  their 
reason  clearly  conceives. 

The  distinguishing  character  of  modern  Deists  is,  that 
they  discard  all  pretences  to  revelation  as  the  effects  of 
imposture  or  enthusiasm.  They  profess  a  regard  for  natu- 
ral religion,  though  they  are  far  from  being  agreed  in  their 
notions  concerning  it. 

They  are  classed  by  some  of  their  own  writers  into  mor- 
tal and  immortal  Deists  —  the  latter  acknowledging  a  fu- 
ture state,  and  the  former  denying  it,  or  representing  it  as 
very  uncertain.  Dr.  Clarke  distinguishes  four  sorts  of 
Deists :  1.  Those  who  pretend  to  believe  the  existence  of 
an  eternal,  infinite,  independent,  intelligent  Being,  who 
made  the  world,  without  concerning  himself  in  the  govern- 
ment of  it.  2.  Those  who  believe  the  being  and  natural 
providence  of  God,  but  deny  the  difference  of  actions  aa 
morally  good  or  evil,  resolving  it  into  the  arbitrary  consti- 
tution of  human  laws ;  and  therefore  they  suppose  that  God 
takes  no  notice  of  them.  With  respect  to  both  these  classes, 
he  observes,  that  their  opinions  can  consistently  terminate 
in  nothing  but  downright  atheism.  3.  Those  who,  having 
right  apprehensions  concerning  the  nature,  attributes,  and 
all-governing  providence  of  God,  seem  also  to  have  some 
notion  of  his  moral  perfections;  though  they  consider 
them  as  transcendant,  and  such  in  nature  and  degree,  that 
we  can  form  no  true  judgment,  nor  argue  with  any  cer- 
kainty  concerning  them ;  but  they  deny  the  immortality  of 
human  souls,  alleging  that  men  perish  at  death,  and  that 
the  present  life  is  the  whole  of  human  existence.  4.  Those 


430  DEISTS. 

who  believe  the  existence,  perfections,  and  providence  of 
God,  the  obligations  of  natural  religion,  and  a  state  of 
future  retribution,  on  the  evidence  of  the  light  of  Nature, 
without  a  divine  revelation ;  such  as  these,  he  says,  are 
the  only  true  Deists ;  but  their  principles,  he  apprehends, 
should  lead  them  to  embrace  Christianity,  and  therefore 
he  concludes  that  there  is  now  no  consistent  scheme  of 
Deism  in  the  world. 

The  first  Deistical  writer  of  any  note  that  appeared  in 
England  was  Herbert,  Baron  of  Cherbury.  He  lived  and 
wrote  in  the  seventeenth  century.  His  book  De  Veritate 
was  first  published  at  Paris,  in  1624.  This,  together  with 
his  book  De  Causis  Errorum,  and  his  treatise  De  Religione 
Laid,  were  afterwards  published  in  London.  His  cele- 
brated work,  De  Religione  Gentilium,  was  published  at 
Amsterdam,  in  1663,  in  4to.,  and  in  1700  in  8vo. ;  and  an 
English  translation  of  it  was  published  at  London  in  1705. 

As  he  was  one  of  the  first  that  formed  Deism  into  a 
system,  and  asserted  the  sufficiency,  universality,  and  ab 
solute  perfection  of  natural  religion,  with  a  view  to  discard 
all  extraordinary  revelation  as  useless  and  needless,  we 
shall  subjoin  the  five  fundamental  articles  of  this  universal 
religion.  They  are  these :  1.  There  is  one  supreme  God. 
2.  That  he  is  chiefly  to  be  worshipped.  3.  That  piety  and 
virtue  are  the  principal  part  of  his  worship.  4.  Thai  we 
must  repent  of  our  sins ;  and  if  we  do  so,  God  will  pardon 
them.  5.  That  there  are  rewards  for  good  men  and  pun- 
ishments for  bad  men,  both  here  and  hereafter.  A  num- 
ber of  advocates  have  appeared  in  the  same  cause ;  and 
however  they  may  have  differed  among  themselves,  they 
have  been  agreed  in  their  attempts  at  invalidating  the  evi- 
dence and  authority  of  divine  revelation.  We  might  men- 
tion Hobbes,  Blount,  Toland,  Collins,  "Woolston,  Tindal, 
Morgan,  Chubb,  Lord  Bolin#hroke,  Hume,  Gibbon,  Paine, 


SUBLAPSARIANS.  4.^1 

and  some  add  Lord  Shaftesbury  to  the  number.  Among 
foreigners,  Voltaire.  Rousseau,  Condorcet,  and  many 
other  celebrated  French  authors,  have  rendered  themselves 
conspicuous  by  their  Deistical  writings.  "But,"  as  one 
observes,  "  the  friends  of  Christianity  have  no  reason  to 
regret  the  free  and  unreserved  discussion  which  their  reli- 
gion has  undergone.  Objections  have  been  stated  and 
urged  in  their  full  force,  and  as  fully  answered ;  arguments 
and  raillery  have  been  repelled ;  and  the  controversy  be- 
tween Christians  and  Deists  has  called  forth  a  great  num- 
ber of  excellent  writers,  who  have  illustrated  both  the 
doctrines  and  evidences  of  Christianity  in  a  manner  that 
will  ever  reflect  honor  on  their  names,  and  be  of  lasting 
service  to  the  cause  of  genuine  religion,  and  the  best  inte- 
rests of  mankind. 


SUBLAPSARIANS. 

SUBLAPSARIANS  are  those  who  hold  that  God  permitted 
the  first  man  to  fall  into  transgression,  without  absolutely 
predetermining  his  fall ;  or  that  the  decree  of  predestina- 
tion regards  man  as  fallen,  by  an  abuse  of  that  freedom 
which  Adam  had,  into  a  state  in  which  all  were  to  be  left 
to  necessary  and  unavoidable  ruin,  who  were  not  exempted 
from  it  by  predestination. 


132  BTPRALAPSARIANS. 


SUPRALAPSARIANS. 

THE  Supralapsarians  are  persons  who  hold  that  God, 
without  any  regard  to  the  good  or  evil  works  of  men,  haa 
resolved,  by  an  eternal  decree,  supra  lapsum,  antecedently 
to  any  knowledge  of  the  fall  of  Adam,  and  independently 
of  it,  to  save  some  and  reject  others :  or,  in  other  words, 
that  God  intended  to  glorify  his  justice  in  the  condemna- 
tion of  feome,  as  well  as  his  mercy  in  the  salvation  of  others ; 
and  for  that  purpose,  decreed  that  Adam  should  necessarily 
fall. 

Dr.  Gill  gives  us  the  following  account  of  Supralapsa- 
rianism.  The  question  which  he  proposes  to  discuss,  is, 
"  Whether  men  were  considered  in  the  mind  of  God  in  the 
decree  of  election  as  fallen  or  unfallen,  as  in  the  corrupt 
mass  through  the  fall,  or  in  the  pure  mass  of  creatureship, 
previous  to  it,  and  as  to  be  created  ?"  There  are  some  who 
think  that  the  latter,  so  considered,  were  the  objects  of  elec- 
tion in  the  divine  mind.  These  are  called  Supralapsarians, 
though  of  these  some  are  of  opinion  that  man  was  coiusid- 
ered  as  to  be  created  flr  creatable,  and  others  as  created 
but  not  fallen.  The  former  seems  best,  that  of  the  vast 
number  of  individuals  which  came  up  in  the  divine  mind 
whom  his  power  could  create,  those  whom  he  meant  to 
bring  into  being  he  designed  to  glorify  himself  by  them  in 
some  way  or  other.  The  decree  of  election  respecting  any 
part  of  them  may  be  distinguished  into  the  decree  of  the 
end  and  the  decree  of  the  means.  The  decree  of  the  end 
respecting  some  is  either  subordinate  to  their  eternal  hap- 
piness, or  ultimate,  which  is  more  properly  the  end,  the 
glory  of  God ;  and  if  both  are  put  together,  it  is  a  state 


SUPRALAPSARIANS.  433 

of  everlasting  communion  with  God,  for  the  glorifying  of  the 
riches  of  his  grace.  The  decree  of  the  means  includes  the 
decree  to  create  men  to  permit  them  to  fall,  to  recover  them 
out  of  it  through  redemption  by  Christ,  to  sanctify  them 
by  the  grace  of  the  Spirit,  and  completely  save  them ;  and 
which  are  not  to  be  reckoned  as  materially  many  decrees, 
but  as  making  one  formal  decree ;  or  they  are  not  to  be 
considered  as  subordinate,  but  as  co-ordinate  means,  and 
as  making  up  one  entire  complete  medium :  for  it  is  not  to 
be  supposed  that  God  decreed  to  create  man,  that  he  might 
permit  him  to  fall,  in  order  to  redeem,  sanctify,  and  save 
him ;  but  he  decreed  all  this  that  he  might  glorify  his  grace, 
mercy,  and  justice.  And  in  this  way  of  considering  the 
decrees  of  God,  they  think  that  they  sufficiently  obviate 
and  remove  the  slanderous  calumny  cast  upon  them  with 
respect  to  the  other  branch  of  predestination,  which  leaves 
men  in  the  same  state  when  others  are  chosen,  and  that  for 
the  glory  of  God.  Which  calumny  is  that,  according  to 
them,  God  made  man  to  damn  him ;  whereas,  according  to 
their  real  sentiments,  God  decreed  to  make  man,  and  made 
man  neither  to  damn  him  nor  save  him,  but  for  his  own 
glory,  which  end  is  answered  in  them  some  way  or  other. 
Again,  they  argue  that  the  end  is  first  in  view  before  the 
means,  and  the  decree  of  the  end  is,  in  order  of  nature, 
before  the  decree  of  the  means ;  and  what  is  first  in  inten- 
tion, is  last  in  execution.  Now,  as  the  glory  of  God  is  last 
in  execution,  it  must  be  first  in  intention,  wherefore  mon 
must  be  considered  in  the  decree  of  the  end  as  not  yet 
created  and  fallen ;  since  the  creation  and  permission  of  sin 
belong  to  the  decree  of  the  means,  which  in  order  of  nature 
is  after  the  decree  of  the  end.  And  they  add  to  this,  that 
if  God  first  decreed  to  create  man,  and  suffered  him  to  fall, 
and  then  out  of  the  fall  chose  some  to  grace  and  glory,  he 
must  decree  to  create  man  without  an  end,  which  is  to  make 

37  2C 


434  SUPRALAPSAAIANS. 

God  to  do  what  no  wise  man  would ;  for  when  a  man  ig 
about  to  do  anything,  he  proposes  an  end,  and  then  con- 
trives and  fixes  on  ways  and  means  to  bring  about  that  end. 
They  think  also  that  this  way  of  "conceiving  and  speaking 
of  these  things  best  expresses  the  sovereignty  of  God  in 
them,  as  declared  in  the  9th  of  Romans,  where  he  is  said 
to  will  such  and  such  things,  for  no  other  reason  but  because 
he  wills  them. 

The  opponents  of  this  doctrine  consider,  however,  that 
it  is  attended  with  insuperable  difficulties.  We  demand, 
say  they,  an  explanation  of  .what  they  mean  by  this  prin- 
ciple, "  God  hath  made  all  things  for  his  own  glory."  If 
they  mean  that  justice  requires  a  creature  to  devote  him- 
self to  the  worship  and  glorifying  of  his  Creator,  we  grant 
it ;  if  they  mean  that  the  attributes  of  God  are  displayed 
in  all  his  works,  we  grant  this  too ;  but  if  the  proposition 
be  intended  to  affirm  that  God  had  no  other  view  in  creating 
men,  so  to  speak,  than  his  own  interest,  we  deny  the  pro- 
position, and  affirm  that  God  created  men  for  their  own 
happiness,  and  in  order  to  have  subjects  upon  whom  he 
might'  bestow  favors. 

We  desire  to  be  informed,  in  the  next  place,  say  they, 
how  it  can  be  conceived  that  a  determination  to  damn  mil- 
lions of  men  can  contribute  to  the  glory  of  God  ?  We 
easily  conceive  that  it  is  for  the  glory  of  divine  justice  to 
punish  guilty  men :  but  to  resolve  to  damn  men  without 
the  consideration  of  sin,  to  create  them  that  they  might 
sin,  to  determine  that  they  should  sin  in  order  to  their 
destruction,  is  what  seems  to  us  more  likely  to  tarnish  the 
glory  of  God  than  to  display  it. 

Again,  we  demand  how,  according  to  this  hypothesis,  it 
can  be  conceived  that  God  is  not  the  author  of  sin  ?  In 
the  general  scheme  of  our  churches,  God  only  permits  men 
to  sin,  and  it  is  the  abuse  of  liberty  that  plunges  man  into 


RELLYANISTS.  435 

misery :  even  this  principle,  all  lenified  as  it  seems,  is  yet 
subject  to  a  great  number  of  difficulties  ;  but  in  this  scheme 
God  wills  sin  to  produce  the  end  he  proposed  in  creating 
the  world,  and  it  was  necessary  that  men  should  sin :  God 
created  them  for  that.  If  this  be  not  to  make  God  the 
author  of  sin,  we  must  renounce  the  most  distinct  and  clear 
ideas. 

Again,  we  require  them  to  reconcile  this  system  with 
many  express  declarations  of  Scripture,  which  inform  ua 
that  Grod  would  have  all  men  to  be  saved.  How  doth  it 
agree  with  such  pressing  entreaties,  such  cutting  reproofs, 
such  tender  expostulations,  as  God  discovers  in  regard  to 
the  unconverted  ?  Matt,  xxiii.  37. 

Lastly,  we  desire  to  know,  how  is  it  possible  to  conceive 
a  God,  who  being  in  the  actual  enjoyment  of  perfect  hap- 
piness, incomprehensible  and  supreme,  could  determine  to 
add  this  decree,  though  useless  to  his  felicity,  to  create  men 
without  number  for  the  purpose  of  confining  them  for  ever 
in  the  chains  of  darkness,  and  burning  them  for  ever  in 
unquenchable  flames. 


RELLYANISTS. 

THE  Rellyanists,  or  Rellyan  Universalists  are  the  fol- 
lowers of  Mr.  James  Relly.  He  first  commenced  his 
ministerial  character  in  connection  with  Mr.  Whitefield, 
and  was  received  with  great  popularity.  Upon  a  change 
of  his  views,  he  encountered  reproach,  and  was  pronounced 
by  many  as  an  enemy  to  godliness.  He  believed  that 
Christ,  as  a  Mediator,  was  so  united  to  mankind,  that  his 
actions  were  theirs,  his  obedience  and  sufferings  theirs ; 


436  RELLtANlfeTS. 

and,  consequently,  that  he  has  as  fully  restored  the  whole 
human  race  to  the  divine  favor,  as  if  all  had  obeyed  and 
Buffered  in  their  own  persons ;  and  upon  this  persuasion 
he  preached  a  finished  salvation,  called  by  the  apostlo 
Jude,~  "  The  common  salvation." 

Many  of  his  followers  are  removed  to  the  world  of 
spirits,  but  a  branch  still  survives.  They  are  not  observers 
of  ordinances,  such  as  water-baptism  and  the  sacrament ; 
professing  to  believe  only  in  one  baptism,  which  they  call 
an  immersion  of  the  mind  or  conscience  into  truth  by  the 
teaching  of  the  Spirit  of  God ;  and  by  the  same  Spirit 
they  are  enabled  to  feed  on  Christ  as  the  bread  of  life, 
professing  that  in  and  with  Jesus  they  possess  all  things. 
They  inculcate  and  maintain  good  works  for  necessary 
purposes ;  but  contend  that  the  principal  and  only  work 
which  ought  to  be  attended  to,  is  the  doing  of  real  good 
without  religious  ostentation ;  that  to  relieve  the  miseries 
and  distresses  of  mankind,  according  to  our  ability,  is 
doing  more  real  good  than  the  superstitious  observance  of 
religious  ceremonies. 

In  general,  they  appear  to  believe  that  there  will  be  a 
resurrection  to  life,  and  a  resurrection  to  condemnation ;  that 
believers  only  will  be  among  the  former,  who  as  first  fruits, 
and  kings  and  priests,  will  have  part  in  the  first  resurrec- 
tion, and  shall  reign  with  Christ  in  his  kingdom  of  the 
millennium ;  that  unbelievers  who  are  after  raised,  must 
wait  the  manifestation  of  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  under 
that  condemnation  of  conscience  which  a  mind  in  darkness 
and  wrath  must  necessarily  feel;  that  believers,  called 
kings  and  priests,  will  be  made  the  medium  of  communica- 
tion to  their  condemned  brethren,  and  like  Joseph  to  his 
brethren,  though  he  spoke  roughly  to  them,  in  reality  over- 
flowed with  affection  and  tenderness  ;  that  ultimately  every 
knee  shall  bow,  and  every  tongue  confess  that  in  the  Lord 


MONOPHYSITES.  437 

they  have  righteousness  and  strength ;  and  thus  every 
enemy  shall  be  subdued  to  the  kingdom  and  glory  of  the 
Great  Mediator.  A  Mr.  Murray  belonging  to  this  society 
emigrated  to  America,  and  preached  these  sentiments  at 
Boston  and  elsewhere.  Mr.  Relly  published  several  works, 
the  principal  of  which  were,  "  Union,"  "  The  Trial  of 
Spirits,"  "Christian  Liberty,"  "One  Baptism,"  "The 
Salt  of  Sacrifice,"  "Antichrist  Resisted,"  "Letters  on 
Universal  Salvation,"  "  The  Cherubimical  Mystery." 


MONOPHYSITES. 

MONOPHYSITES  is  (from  M.OVOJ,  solus,  and  <purfi£,  natura,)  a 
general  name  given  to  all  those  sectaries  in  the  Levant 
who  only  own  one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ ;  and  who  main- 
tain that  the  divine  and  human  nature  of  Jesus  Christ 
were  so  united  as  to  form  only  one  nature,  yet  without  any 
change,  confusion,  or  mixture  of  the  two  natures. 

The  Monophysites,  however,  properly  so  called,  are,  the 
followers  of  Severus,  a  learned  monk  of  Palestine,  who 
was  created  patriarch  of  Antioch,  in  513,  and  Petrus 
Fullensis. 

The  Monophysites  were  encouraged  by  the  emperor 
Anastasius,  but  suppressed  by  Justin  and  succeeding 
emperors.  However,  this  sect  was  restored  by  Jacob 
Baradaeus,  an  obscure  monk,  insomuch  that  when  he  died 
bishop  of  Edessa,  A.  D.  588,  he  left  it  in  a  most  flourishing 
state  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  Egypt,  Nubia, 
Abyssinia,  and  other  countries.  The  laborious  efforts  of 
Jacob  were  seconded  in  Egypt  and  the  adjacent  countries 
by  Theodosius,  bishop  of  Alexandria ;  and  he  became  so 

37* 


438  MONOPHYSITES. 

famous,  that  all  the  Monophysites  of  the  East  considered 
him  as  their  second  parent  and  founder,  and  aie  to  this 
day  called  Jacobites,  in  honor  of  their  new  chief. 

The  Monophysites  are  divided  into  two  sects  or  parties, 
the  one  African  and  the  other  Asiatic ;  at  the  he.ad  of  the 
latter  is  the  patriarch  of  Antioch,  who  resides  for  the  most 
part  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Athanias,  near  the  city  of  Mer- 
din ;  the  former  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  patriarch 
of  Alexandria,  who  generally  resides  at  Grand  Cairo,  and 
are  subdivided  into  Cophts  and  Abyssinians.  From  the 
fifteenth  century  downwards,  all  the  patriarchs  of  the 
Monophysites  have  taken  the  name  of  Ignatius,  in  order 
to  show  that  they  are  the  lineal  successors  of  Ignatius, 
who  was  bishop  of  Antioch  in  the  first  century,  and  con 
sequently  the  lawful  patriarch  of  Antioch.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century,  a  small  body  of  Monophysites,  in  Asia, 
abandoned  for  some  time  the  doctrine  and  institution  of 
their  ancestors,  and  embraced  the  communion  of  Rome ; 
bat  the  African  Monophysites,  notwithstanding  that 
poverty  and  ignorance  which  exposed  them  to  the  seduc- 
tions of  sophistry  and  gain,  stood  firm  in  their  principles, 
and  made  an  obstinate  resistance  to  the  promises,  presents, 
and  attempts  employed  by  the  papal  missionaries  to  bring 
them  under  the  Roman  yoke ;  and  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, those  of  Asia  and  Africa  have  persisted  in  their 
refusal  to  enter  into  the  communion  of  the  Romish  church, 
notwithstanding  the  earnest  entreaties  and  alluring  offers 
that  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  by  the  pope's 
legates,  to  conquer  their  inflexible  constancy. 


MONOTHELITES.  —  CARMATHITES.        439 


MONOTHELITES. 


MoJW:ttkiLi.ATES,  (compounded  of  fwvos,  "  single,"  and 
and  dsX^fjux,  de>w,  volo,  "  I  will,")  an  ancient  sect,  which 
sprung  out  of  ti\o  Eutychians  ;  thus  called,  as  only  allow- 
ing of  one  will  in  Jesus  Christ. 

The  opinion  of  the  Monothelites  had  its  rise  in  630,  and 
had  the  emperor  Heraclius  for  an  adherent  ;  it  was  the 
same  with  that  of  the  acephalous  Severians.  They  allowed 
of  two  wills  in  Christ,  considered  with  regard  to  the  two 
natures  ;  hut  reduced  vliem  to  one  hy  reason  of  the  union 
of  the  two  natures,  thinking  it  ahsurd  that  there  should  be 
two  free  wills  in  one  and  the  same  person.  They  were 
condemned  hy  the  sixth  general  council  in  680,  as  heing 
supposed  to  destroy  the  perfsction  of  the  humanity  of 
Jesus  Christ,  depriving  it  of  will  and  operation.  Their 
sentiments  were  afterwards  enJiiaced  by  the  Maronites. 


CARMATHITES. 

CARMATHITES,  the  followers  of  a  fcoted  impostor  in  the 
ninth  century,  who  endeavored  to  overthrow  all  the  foun- 
dations of  Mussulmanism.  Carmath  theii  prophet  was  a 
person  of  great  austerity  of  life ;  and  said  that  God  had 
commanded  him  to  pray  not  five  times,  with  the  Mussul- 
mans, but  fifty  times  a  day.  To  comply  with  this,  they 
often  neglected  their  business  ;  they  ate  many  things  for- 
bidden by  the  law  of  Mahomet,  and  believed  that  angels 
were  their  guides  in  all  their  actions,  and  that  the  demons 
or  ghosts  are  their  enemies. 


44U  SADDUCEES.  —  SAMARITANS. 


SADDUCEES. 

THE  Sadducees  were  a  famous  sect  among  the  Jews ;  BO 
called,  it  is  said,  from  their  founder  Sadoc.  It  began  in 
the  time  of  Antigonus,  of  Socho,  president  of  the  Sanhe- 
drim at  Jerusalem,  and  teacher  of  the  law  in  the  principal 
divinity  school  of  that  city.  Antigonus  having  often,  in 
his  lectures,  inculcated  to  his  scholars  that  they  ought  not 
to  serve  God  in  a  servile  manner,  but  only  out  of  filial 
love  and  fear,  two  of  his  scholars,  Sadoc  and  Baithus, 
thence  inferred  that  there  were  no  rewards  at  all  after 
this  life ;  and,  therefore,  separating  from  the  school  of 
their  master,  they  thought  there  was  no  resurrection  nor 
future  state,  neither  angel  nor  spirit,  Matt.  xii.  23 ;  Acts 
xxiii.  8.  They  seem  to  agree  greatly  with  the  Epicureans  ; 
differing,  however,  in  this,  that  though  they  denied  a  future 
state,  yet  they  allowed  the  power  of  God  to  create  the 
world ;  whereas  the  followers  of  Epicurus  denied  it.  It  is 
said  also,  they  rejected  the  Bible,  except  the  Pentateuch ; 
denied  predestination ;  and  taught  that  God  had  made  man 
absolute  master  of  all  his  actions,  without  assistance  tp 
good,  or  restraint  from  evil. 


SAMARITANS. 

THE  Samaritans  were  an  ancient  sect  among  the  Jews, 
whose  origin  was  in  the  time  of  King  Rehoboam,  under 
whose  reign  the  people  of  Israel  were  divided  into  two 
distinct  kingdoms,  that  of  Judah  and  that  of  Israel.  The 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was  Samaria,  whence  the 


MELCHITE8.  441 

Israelites  took  the  name  of  Samaritans.  Shahnanes^r, 
king  of  Assyria,  having  besieged  and  taken  Samaria,  car- 
ried away  all  the  people  captives  into  the  remotest  parts 
of  his  dominions,  and  filled  their  place  with  Babylonians, 
Cutheans,  and  other  idolaters.  These,  finding  that  they 
were  exposed  to  wild  beasts,  desired  that  an  Israelitish 
priest  might  be  sent  among  them  to  instruct  them  in  the 
ancient  religion  and  customs  of  the  land  they  inhabited. 
This  being  granted  them,  they  were  delivered  from  the 
plague  of  wild  beasts,  and  embraced  the  law  of  Moses, 
with  which  they  mixed  a  great  part  of  their  ancient  idola- 
try. Upon  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  it  appears  that  they  had  entirely  quitted  the 
worship  of  their  idols.  But  though  they  were  united  in 
religion,  "they  were  not  so  in  affection  with  the  Jews ;  for 
they  employed  various  calumnies  and  stratagems  to  hinder 
their  rebuilding  the  temple  of  Jerusalem ;  and  when  they 
could  not  prevail,  they  erected  a  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim 
in  opposition  to  that  on  Jerusalem.  See  2  Kings  xvii. ; 
Ezra  iv.,  v.,  vi.  The  Samaritans  at  present  are  few  in 
number,  but  pretend  to  great  strictness  in  their  observa- 
tion of  the  law  of  Moses.  They  are  said  to  be  scattered ; 
some  at  Damascus,  some  at  Gaza,  and  some  at  Grand 
Cairo,  in  Egypt. 


MELCHITES. 

MELCHITES,  the  name  given  to  the  Syriac,  Egyptian, 
and  other  Christians  of  the  Levant.  The  Melchites,  ex- 
cepting some  few  points  of  little  or  no  importance,  whicli 
relate  only  to  ceremonies  and  ecclesiastical  discipline,  are, 
in  every  respect,  professed  Greeks ;  but  they  are  governed 


442  CERINTHIANS. —  LUCIANISTS. 

by  a  particular  patriarch,  who  assumes  the  title  of  Patri- 
arch of  Antioch.  They  celebrate  mass  in  the  Arabian 
language.  The  religious  among  the  Melchites  follow 
the  rule  of  St.  Basil,  the  common  rule  of  all  the  Greek 
monks. 


CERINTHIANS. 

THE  Cerinthians  were  ancient  heretics,  who  denied  the 
deity  of  Jesus  Christ ;  so  named  from  Cerinthus.  They 
believed  that  he  was  a  mere  man,  the  son  of  Joseph  and 
Mary ;  but  that  in  his  baptism  a  celestial  virtue  descended 
on  him  in  the  form  of  a  dove ;  by  means  wherepf  he  was 
consecrated  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  made  Christ,  and  wrought 
so  many  miracles ;  that,  as  he  received  it  from  heaven,  it 
quitted  him  after  his  passion,  and  returned  to  the  place 
whence  it  came ;  so  that  Jesus,  whom  they  called  a  pure 
man,  really  died  and  rose  again ;  but  that  Christ,  who  was 
distinguished  from  Jesus,  did  not  suffer  at  all.  It  waa 
partly  to  refute  this  sect  that  St.  John  wrote  his  Gospel 
They  received  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  to  countenance 
their  doctrine  of  circumcision ;  but  they  omitted  the  gene- 
alogy. They  discarded  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  because 
that  apostle  held  circumcision  abolished. 


LUCIANISTS. 

LUCIANISTS,  or  Lucanists,  a  sect  so  called  from  Lucia 
nus,  or  Lucanus,  a  heretic  of  the  second  century,  being  a 
disciple  of  Marcion,  whose  errors  he  followed,  adding  some 
new  ones  to  them.  Epiphanius  says  he  abandoned  Mar 


LUCIFERIANS.  443 

cion,  teaching  that  people  ought  not  to  marry,  for  fear  of 
enriching  the  Creator ;  and  yet  other  authors  mention, 
that  he  held  this  error  in  common  with  Marcion  and  other 
Gnostics.  He  denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  asserting 
it  to  be  material. 

There  was  another  sect  of  Lucianists,  who  appeared 
some  time  after  the  Arians.  They  taught  that  the  Father 
had  been  a  Father  always,  and  that  he  had  the  name  even 
before  he  had  begot  the  Son,  as  having  in  him  the  power 
and  faculty  of  generation ;  and  in  this  manner  they  ac- 
counted for  the  eternity  of  the  Son. 


LUCIFERIANS. 

LUCIFERIANS,  a  sect  who  adhered  to  the  schism  of  Luci- 
fer, Bishop  of  Cagliari,  in  the  fourth  century,  who  was 
banished  by  the  Emperor  Constantius,  for  having  defended 
the  Nicene  doctrine  concerning  the  three  persons  in  the 
Godhead.  It  is  said  also  that  they  believed  the  soul  to 
be  corporeal,  and  to  be  transmitted  from  the  father  to  the 
children.  The  Luciferians  were  numerous  in  Gaul,  Spain, 
Egypt,  &c.  The  occasion  of  this  schism  was,  that  Lucifer 
would  not  allow  any  acts  he  had  done  to  be  abolished. 
There  were  but  two  Luciferian  bishops,  but  a  great  num- 
ber of  priests  and  deacons.  The  Luciferians  bore  •!  great 
aversion  to  the  Arians. 


444  GALILEANS.  —  SABELLIANS. 


GALILEANS. 

THE  Galileans  -were  a  sect  of  the  Jews  which  arose  in 
Judea.  some  years  after  the  birth  of  our  Saviour.  They 
sprang  from  one  Judas,  a  native  of  Gaulam,  in  Upper 
Galilee,  upon  the  occasion  of  Augustus  appointing  the 
people  to  he  mustered,  which  they  looked  upon  as  an  in- 
stance of  servitude  which  all  true  Israelites  ought  to  oppose. 
They  pretended  that  God  alone  should  be  owned  as  master 
and  lord,  and  in  other  respects  were  of  the  opinion  of  the 
Pharisees ;  but  as  they  judged  it  unlawful  to  pray  for 
infidel  princes,  they  separated  themselves  from  the  rest  of 
the  Jews,  and  performed  their  sacrifices  apart.  As  our 
Saviour  and  his  apostles  were  of  Galilee,  they  were  sus- 
pected to  be  of  the  sect  of  the  Galileans ;  and  it  was  on 
this  principle,  as  St.  Jerome  observes,  that  the  Pharisees 
laid  a  snare  for  him,  asking,  Whether  it  were  lawful  to 
give  tribute  to  Caesar?  that  in  case  he  denied  it,  they 
might  have  an  occasion  of  accusing  him. 


SABELLIANS. 

THE  Sabellians  were  a  sect  in  the  third  century  that 
embraced  the  opinions  of  Sabellius,  a  philosopher  of 
Egypt,  who  openly  taught  that  there  is  but  one  person  in 
the  Godhead. 

The  Sabellians  maintained  that  the  Word  and  the  Holy 
Spirit  are  only  virtues,  emanations,  or  functions  of  the 
Deity ;  and  held  that  he  who  is  in  heaven  is  the  Father  of 


MATERIALISTS.  445 

all  things ;  that  he  descended  into  the  Virgin,  became  a 
child,  and  was  born  of  her  as  a  son;  and  that,  having 
accomplished  the  mystery  of  our  salvation,  he  diffused 
himself  on  the  apostles  in  tongues  of  fire,  and  was  then 
enominated  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  they  explained  by 
mparing  God  to  the  sun ;  the  illuminated  virtue  or  qua- 
lity of  which  was  the  Word,  and  its  warming  virtue  the 
Holy  Spirit.  The  Word,  they  taught,  was  darted,  like  a 
divine  ray,  to  accomplish  the  work  of  redemption;  and 
that,  being  re-ascended  to  heaven,  the  influences  of  the 
Father  were  communicated  after  a  like  manner  to  the 
apostles. 


MATERIALISTS. 

THE  Materialists  were  a  sect  in  the  ancient  church, 
composed  of  persons  who,  being  prepossessed  with  that 
maxim  in  philosophy,  "ex  nihilo  nihilfit"  out  of  nothing 
nothing  can  arise,  had  recourse  to  an  eternal  matter,  on 
which  they  supposed  God  wrought  in  the  creation,  instead 
of  admitting  Him  alone  as  the  sole  cause  of  the  existence 
of  all  things.  Tertullian  vigorously  opposed  them  in  his 
treatise  against  Hermogenes,  who  was  one  of  their  number. 

Materialists  are  also  those  who  maintain  that  the  soul 
of  man  is  material,  or  that  the  principle  of  perception  and 
thought  is  not  a  substance  distinct  from  the  body,  but  the 
result  of  corporeal  organization.  There  are  others  called 
by  this  name,  who  have  maintained  that  there  is  nothing 
but  matter  in  the  universe. 

The  followers  of  the  late  Dr.  Priestley  are  considered  as 
Materialists,  or  Philosophical  Necessarians.  According  to 
the  doctor's  writing,  he  believed — 

38 


MATERIALISTS. 

1.  That  man  is  no  more  than  what  we  now  see  of  him ; 
his  being  commences  at  the  time  of  his  conception,  or  per- 
haps   at  an  earlier  period.     The   corporeal   and   mental 
faculties,  inhering  in  the  same  substance,  grow,  ripen,  and 
decay  "together ;  and  whenever  the  system  is  dissolved,  it 
continues  in  a  state  of  dissolution,  till  it  shall  please  that 
Almighty  Being,  who  called  it  into  existence,  to  restore  it 
to  life  again.    For  if  the  mental  principle  were,  in  its  own 
nature,  immaterial  and  immortal,  all  its  peculiar  faculties 
would  be  so  too  ;  whereas  we  see  that  every  faculty  of  the 
mind,  without  exception,  is  liable  to  be  impaired,  and  even 
to  become  wholly  extinct,  before  death.     Since,  therefore, 
all  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  separately  taken,  appear  to 
be  mortal,  the  substance,  or  principle,  in  which  they  exist, 
must  be  pronounced  mortal  too.     Thus  we  might  conclude 
that  the  body  was  mortal,  from  observing  that  all  the 
separate  senses  and  limbs  were  liable  to  decay  and  perish. 
This  system  gives  a  real  value  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection  from  the  dead,  which  is  peculiar  to  revelation ; 
on  which  alone  the  sacred  writers  build  all  our  hope  of 
future  life;  and  it  explains  the  uniform  language  of  the 
Scriptures,  which  speak  of  one  day  of  judgment  for  all 
mankina,  and  represent  all  the  rewards  of  virtue,  and  all 
the  punishments  of  vice,  as  taking  place  at  that  awful  day, 
and  not  before.    In  the  Scriptures  the  heathens  are  repre- 
sented as  without  hope,  and  all  mankind  as  perishing  at 
death,  if  there  be  no  resurrection  of  the  dead. 

The  Apostle  Paul  asserts,  in  1  Cor.  xv.  16,  that  if  the 
dead  rise  not,  then  is  not  Christ  risen  ;  and  if  Christ  be 
not  raised,  your  faith  is  vain,  ye  are  yet  in  your  sins : 
then  they  also  who  are  fallen  asleep  in  Christ  are  perished. 
And  again,  verse  32 :  If  the  dead  rise  not,  let  us  eat  and 
drink,  for  to-morrow  we  die.  In  the  whole  discourse,  he 


MATERIALISTS.  447 

does  not  even  mention  the  doctrine  of  happiness  or  misery 
without  the  body. 

If  we  search  the  Scriptures  for  passages  expressive  of 
the  state  of  man  at  death,  we  find  such  declarations  a3 
expressly  exclude  any  trace  of  sense,  thought,  or  enjoy- 
ment. See  Ps.  vi.  5 ;  Job  xiv.  7,  etc. 

2.  That  there  is  some  fixed  law  of  nature  respecting  the 
will,  as  well  as  the  other  powers  of  the  mind,  and  every- 
thing else  in  the  constitution  of  nature  ;  and  consequently 
that  it  is  never  determined  without  some  real  or  apparent 
cause  foreign  to  itself ;  i.  e.,  without  some  motive  or  choice ; 
or  that  motives  influence  us  in  some  definite  and  invariable 
manner,  so  that  every  volition,  or  choice,  is  constantly 
regulated  and  determined  by  what  precedes  it ;  and  this 
constant  determination  of  mind,  according  to  the  motives 
presented  to  it,  is  what  is  meant  by  its  necessary  determi- 
nation. This  being  admitted  to  be  the  fact,  there  will  be 
a  necessary  connection  between  all  things  past,  present, 
and  to  come,  in  the  way  of  proper  cause  and  effect,  as 
much  in  the  intellectual  as  in  the  natural  world ;  so  that, 
according  to  the  established  laws  of  nature,  no  event  could 
have  been  otherwise  than  it  has  been  or  is  to  be,  and  there- 
fore all  things  past,  present,  and  to  come,  are  precisely 
what  the  Author  of  Nature  really  intended  them  to  be, 
and  has  made  provision  for. 

To  establish  this  conclusion,  nothing  is  necessary  but 
that,  throughout  all  nature,  the  same  consequences  should 
invariably  result  from  the  same  circumstances.  For,  if  this 
be  admitted,  it  will  necessarily  follow,  that  at  the  com- 
mencement of  any  system,  since  the  several  parts  of  it  and 
their  respective  situations  were  appointed  by  the  Deity, 
the  first  change  would  take  place  according  to  a  certain 
rule  established  by  himself,  the  result  of  which  would  be 
a  new  situation ;  after  which  the  same  laws  continuing, 


448  MATERIALISTS. 

another  change  would  succeed,  according  to  the  same  rules, 
and  so  on  forever ;  every  new  situation  invariably  leading 
to  another,  and  every  event,  from  the  commencement  to 
the  termination  of  the  system,  heing  strictly  connected; 
BO  that,  unless  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  system  were 
changed,  it  would  he  impossible  that  any  event  should  have 
been  otherwise  than  it  was.  In  all  these  cases,  the  cir- 
cumstances preceding  any  change  are  called  the  causes  of 
that  change ;  and  since  a  determinate  event  or  effect  con- 
stantly follows  certain  circumstances  or  causes,  the  con- 
nection between  cause  and  effect  is  concluded  to  be  inva- 
riable, and  therefore  necessary. 

It  is  universally  acknowledged,  that  there  can  be  no 
effect  without  an  adequate  cause.  This  is  even  the  foun- 
dation on  which  the  only  proper  argument  for  the  being  of 
a  God  rests.  And  the  Necessarian  asserts  that  if,  in  any 
given  state  of  mind,  with  respect  both  to  dispositions  and 
motives,  two  different  determinations,  or  volitions,  be  pos- 
sible, it  can  be  on  no  other  principle  than  that  one  of  them 
should  come  under  the  description  of  an  effect  without  a 
cause ;  ju,st  as  if  the  beam  of  balance  might  incline  either 
way,  though  loaded  with  equal  weights.  And  if  anything 
whatever,  even  a  thought  in  the  mind  of  man,  could  arise 
without  an  adequate  cause,  anything  else,  the  mind  itself, 
or  the  whole  universe,  might  likewise  exist  without  an  ade- 
quate cause. 

This  scheme  of  philosophical  necessity  implies  a  chain 
of  causes  and  effects  established  by  infinite  wisdom,  and 
terminating  in  the  greatest  good  of  the  whole  universe ; 
evils  of  all  kinds,  natural  and  moral,  being  admitted,  aa 
far  as  they  contribute  to  that  end,  or  are  in  the  nature  of 
things  inseparable  from  it.  Vice  is  productive  not  of  good, 
but  of  evil  to  us,  both  here  and  hereafter,  though  good 
may  result  from  it  to  the  whole  system  ;  and  according  to 


MATERIALISTS.  449 

the  fixed  laws  of  nature,  our  present  and  future  happiness 
necessarily  depend  on  our  cultivating  good  dispositions. 

This  scheme  of  philosophical  necessity  is  distinguished 
from  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination  in  the  fol- 
losing  particulars  : 

1.  No  Necessarian  supposes  that  any  of  the  human  race 
will  suffer  eternally,  hut  that  future  punishments  will  an- 
swer the  same  purpose  as  temporal  ones  are  found  to  do  ; 
ail  of  which  tend  to  good,  and  are  evidently  admitted  for 
that  purpose.     Upon  the  doctrine  of  necessity,  also,  the 
most  indifferent  actions  of  men  are  equally  necessary  with 
the  most  important  ;  since  every  volition,  like  any  other 
effect,  must  have  an  adequate  cause  depending  upon  the 
previous  state  of  the  mind,  and  the  influence  to  which  it  is 
exposed. 

2.  The  Necessarian  believes  that  his  own  dispositions 
and  actions  are  the  necessary  and  sole  means  of  his  pre- 
sent and  future  happiness  ;  so  that,  in  the  most  proper 
sense  of  the  words,  it  depends  entirely  on  himself  whether 
he  be  virtuous  or  vicious,  happy  or  miserable. 

3.  The  Calvinistic  system  entirely  excludes  the  popular 
notion  of  free  will,  viz.  :  the  liberty  or  power  of  doing 
what  we  please,  virtuous  or  vicious,  as  belonging  to  every 
person,  in  every  situation  ;  which  is  perfectly  consistent 
with  the  doctrine  of  philosophical  necessity,  and  indeed 
results  from  it. 

4  The  Necessarian  believes  nothing  of  the  posterity  of 
Adam's  sinning  in  him,  and  of  their  being  liable  to  the 
wrath  of  God  on  that  account  ;  or  the  necessity  of  an  in- 
finite Being  making  atonement  for  them  by  suffering  in 
their  stead,  and  thus  making  the  Deity  propitious  to  them. 
He  believes  nothing  of  all  the  actions  of  any  man  being 
necessarily  sinful  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  thinks  that  the 
very  worst  of  men  are  capable  of  benevolent  intentions  in 


ss* 


450  JACOBITES. 

many  things  that  they  do ;  and  likewise  that  very  good 
men  are  capable  of  falling  from  virtue,  and  consequently 
of  sinking  into  final  perdition.  Upon  the  principles  of 
the  Necessarian,  also,  all  late  repentance,  and  especially 
after  long  and  confirmed  habits  of  vice,  is  altogf  ther  and 
necessarily  ineffectual ;  there  not  being  sufficient  time  left 
to  produce  a  change  of  disposition  and  character,  which 
can  only  be  done  by  a  change  of  conduct  of  proportionably 
long  continuance. 

In  short,  the  three  doctrines  of  Materialism,  Philoso- 
phical Necessity,  and  Socinianism,  are  considered  as  equally 
parts  of  one  system.  The  scheme  of  Necessity  is  the  im- 
mediate result  of  the  materiality  of  man ;  for  mechanism 
is  the  undoubted  consequence  of  materialism,  and  that 
man  is  wholly  material,  is  eminently  subservient  to  the 
proper  or  mere  humanity  of  Christ.  For  if  no  man  have 
a  soul  distinct  from  his  body,  Christ,  who  in  all  other  re- 
spects appeared  as  a  man,  could  not  have  a  soul  which  had 
existed  before  his  body;  and  the  whole  doctrine  of  the 
pre-existence  of  souls,  of  which  the  opinion  of  the  pre- 
existence  of  Christ  is  a  branch,  will  be  effectually  over- 
turned. 


JACOBITES. 

THE  Jacobites  are  a  sect  of  Christians  in  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia ;  so  called,  either  from  Jacob,  a  Syrian,  who 
lived  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Mauritius,  or  from  one 
Jacob,  a  monk,  who  flourished  in  the  year  550. 

The  Jacobites  are  of  two  sects,  some  following  the  rites 
of  the  Latin  church,  and  others  continuing  separated  from 
the  church  of  Rome.  There  is  also  a  division  among  the 


JANSENISTS.  451 

latter,  who  have  two  rival  patriarchs.  As  to  their  belief, 
they  hold  but  one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ ;  with  respect  to 
purgatory,  and  prayers  for  the  dead,  they  are  of  the  sama 
opinion  with  the  Greeks  and  other  eastern  Christians. 
They  consecrate  unleavened  bread  at  the  eucharist,  and 
are  against  confession,  believing  that  it  is  not  of  divine 
institution. 


JANSENISTS. 

THE  Jansenists  were  a  sect  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in 
France,  who  followed  the  opinions  of  Jansenius  (bishop  of 
Ypres,  and  doctor  of  divinity  of  the  universities  of  Louvain 
and  Douay,)  in  relation  to  grace  and  predestination. 

In  the  year  1640,  the  two  universities  just  mentioned, 
and  particularly  father  Molina  and  father  Leonard  Celsus, 
thought  fit  to  condemn  the  opinions  of  the  Jesuits  on  grace 
and  free-will.  This  having  set  the  controversy  on  foot, 
Jansenius  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Jesuits  the  senti- 
ments of  St.  Augustine,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  grace, 
which  he  intituled  Augustinus.  This  treatise  was  attacked 
by  the  Jesuits,  who  accused  Jansenius  of  maintaining 
dangerous  and  heretical  opinions  ;  and  afterwards,  in  1642, 
obtained  of  pope  Urban  VIII.  a  formal  condemnation  of 
the  treatise  written  by  Jansenius ;  when  the  partisans  of 
Jansenius  gave  out  that  this  bull  was  spurious,  and  com- 
posed by  a  person  entirely  devoted  to  the  Jesuits.  After 
the  death  of  Urban  VIII.,  the  affair  of  Jansenism  began 

7  O 

to  be  more  warmly  controverted,  and  gave  birth  to  a  great 
number  of  polemical  writings  concerning  grace ;  and  what 
occasioned  some  mirth,  were  the  titles  which  each  party 
gave  to  their  writings :  one  writer  published  the  Torch  of 


452  JANSENISTS. 

St.  Augustine  ;  another  found  Snuffers  for  St.  Augustine > 
Torch;  and  father  Veron  formed  A  Q-ag for  the  Jansen- 
ists,  &c.  In  the  year  1650,  sixty-eight  bishops  of  Franco 
subscribed  a  letter  to  pope  Innocent  X.,  to  obtain  an 
inquiry  into  and  condemnation  of  the  five  following  propo- 
sitions, extracted  from  Jansenius's  Augustinus.  1.  Some 
of  God's  commandments  are  impossible  to  be  observed  by 
the  righteous,  even  though  they  endeavor  with  all  their 
power  to  accomplish  them.  2.  In  the  state  of  corrupted 
nature,  we  are  incapable  of  resisting  inward  grace.  3. 
Merit  and  demerit,  in  a  state  of  corrupted  nature,  do  not 
depend  on  a  liberty  which  excludes  necessity,  but  on  a 
liberty  which  excludes  constraint.  4.  The  Semipelagians 
admitted  the  necessity  of  an  inward  preventing  grace  for 
the  performance  of  each  particular  act,  even  for  the  begin- 
ning of  faith ;  but  they  were  heretics  in  maintaining  that 
this  grace  was  of  such  a  nature  that  the  will  of  man  was 
able  either  to  resist  or  obey  it.  5.  It  is  Semipelagianism 
to  say  that  Jesus  Christ  died,  or  shed  his  blood,  for  all 
mankind  in  general. 

In  the  year  1652,  the  pope  appointed  a  congregation 
for  examining  into  the  dispute  relative  to  grace.  In  this 
congregation  Jansenius  was  condemned ;  and  the  bull  of 
condemnation,  published  in  May,  1653,  filled  all  the  pulpits 
in  Paris  with  violent  outcries  and  alarms  against  the 
Jansenists.  In  the  year  1656,  pope  Alexander  VII. 
issued  another  bull,  in  which  he  condemned  the  five  pro- 
positions of  Jansenius.  However,  the  Jansenists  affirmed 
that  these  propositions  were  not  to  be  found  in  this 
book ;  but  that  some  of  his  enemies  having  caused  them  to 
be  printed  on  a  sheet,  inserted  them  in  the  book,  and 
thereby  deceived  the  pope.  At  last  Clement  XL  put  an 
end  to  the  dispute  by  his  constitution  of  July  17,  1705,  in 
whici,  after  having  recited  the  constitutions  of  his  pro- 


JANSENISTS.  453 

decessors  in  relation  to  this  affair,  he  declared,  "  That,  in 
order  to  pay  a  proper  obedience  to  the  papal  constitutions 
concerning  the  present  question,  it  is  necessary  to  receive 
them  with  a  respectful  silence."  The  clergy  of  Paris,  the 
same  year,  approved  and  accepted  this  bull,  and  none 
dared  to  oppose  it.  This  is  the  famous  bull  Unigenitux, 
BO  called  from  its  beginning  with  the  words  Unigenittu 
Dei  Filius,  &c.,  which  has  occasioned  so  much  confusion 
in  France. 

It  was  not  only  on  account  of  their  embracing  the  doc- 
trines of  Augustine  that  the  Jesuits  were  so  embittered 
against  them  ;  but  that  which  offended  the  Jesuits,  and  the 
other  creatures  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  was  their  strict  piety 
and  severe  moral  discipline.  The  Jansenists  cried  out 
against  the  corruptions  of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  com- 
plained that  neither  its  doctrines  nor  morals  retained  any 
traces  of  their  former  purity.  They  reproached  the  clergy 
with  an  universal  depravation  of  sentiments  and  manners, 
and  an  entire  forgetfulness  of  the  dignity  of  their  charac- 
ter and  the  duties  of  their  vocation ;  they  censured  the 
licentiousness  of  the  monastic  orders,  and  insisted  upon 
the  necessity  of  reforming  their  discipline  according  to  the 
rules  of  sanctity,  abstinence,  and  self-denial,  that  were 
originally  prescribed  by  their  respective  founders.  They 
maintained,  also,  that  the  people  ought  to  be  carefully 
instructed  in  all  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of  Christianity ; 
and  that,  for  this  purpose,  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  public 
liturgies  should  be  offered  to  their  perusal  in  their  mother 
tongue ;  and,  finally,  they  looked  upon  it  as  a  matter  of 
the  highest  moment  to  persuade  all  Christians  that  true 
piety  did  not  consist  in  the  observance  of  pompous  rites, 
or  in  the  performance  of  external  acts  of  devotion,  but  in 
inward  holiness  and  divine  love. 

Notwithstanding  the   above-mentioned   sentiments,  the 


454  JANSENISTS. 

Jansenists  have  been  accused  of  superstition  and  fanati- 
cism ;  and,  on  account  of  their  severe  discipline  and  prac- 
tice, have  been  denominated  Rigorists.  It  is  said  that 
they  made  repentance  consist  chiefly  in  those  voluntary 
Bufferings  which  the  transgressor  inflicted  upon  himself,  in 
proportion  to  the  nature  of  his  crimes  and  the  degree  of 
his  guilt.  They  tortured  and  macerated  their  bodies  by 
painful  labor,  excessive  abstinence,  continual  prayer,  and 
contemplation ;  nay,  they  carried  these  austerities,  it  is 
said,  to  so  high  a  pitch,  as  to  place  merit  in  them,  and  to 
consider  those  as  the  sacred  victims  of  repentance  who  had 
gradually  put  an  end  to  their  days  by  their  excessive 
abstinence  and  labor.  Dr.  Haweis,  however,  in  his  Church 
History,  (vol.  iii.  p.  46,)  seems  to  form  a  more  favorable 
opinion  of  them.  "I  do  not,"  says  he,  " readily  receive 
the  accusations  that  Papists  or  Protestants  have  objected 
to  them  as  over-rigorous  and  fanatic  in  their  devotion ;  but 
I  will  admit  many  things  might  be  blameable ;  a  tincture 
of  popery  might  drive  them  to  push  monkish  austerities 
too  far,  and  secretly  to  place  some  merit  in  mortification, 
which  they  in  general  disclaimed ;  yet,  with  all  that  can 
be  said,  surely  the  root  of  the  matter  was  in  them.  When 
I  read  Jansenius,  or  his  disciples  Pascal  or  Quesnel,  I  bow 
before  such  distinguished  excellencies,  ard  confess  them 
my  brethren ;  shall  I  say  my  fathers  ?  Their  principles 
are  pure  and  evangelical ;  their  morals  founded  upon  the 
apostles  and  prophets ;  and  their  *w\  to  amend  an<l  cou- 
yert,  blessed  with  eminent 


FRENCH  PROPHETS.  455 


FRENCH  PROPHETS. 

THEY  first  appeared  in  Dauphiny  and  Vivarais.  In  the 
year  1688,  five  or  six  hundreJ  Protestants  of  both  sexes 
gave  themselves  out  to  be  prophets,  and  inspired  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  They  soon  became  so  numerous,  that  there 
were  many  thousands  of  them  inspired.  They  were  people 
of  all  ages  and  sexes  without  distinction,  though  the  greatest 
port  of  them  were  boys  and  girls  from  six  or  seven  to 
twenty-five  years  of  age.  They  had  strange  fits,  which 
came  upon  them  with  tremblings  and  faintings  as  in  a  swoon, 
which  made  them  stretch  out  their  arms  and  legs,  and  stag- 
ger several  times  before  they  dropped  down.  They  struck 
themselves  with  their  hands,  they  fell  on  their  backs,  shut 
their  eyes,  and  heaved  with  their  breasts.  They  remained 
a  while  in  trances,  and,  coming  out  of  them  with  twitchings, 
uttered  all  which  came  in  their  mouths.  They  said  they 
saw  the  heavens  open,  the  angels,  paradise,  and  hell.  Those 
who  were  just  on  the  point  of  receiving  the  spirit  of  pro- 
phecy, dropped  down  not  only  in  the  assemblies,  crying  out 
mercy,  but  in  the  fields,  and  in  their  own  houses.  The 
least  of  their  assemblies  made  up  four  or  five  hundred,  and 
some  of  them  amounted  to  even  three  or  four  thousand 
persons.  When  the  prophets  had  for  a  while  been  under 
agitations  of  body,  they  began  to  prophesy.  The  burden 
of  their  prophecies  was  — Amend,  your  lives  ;  repent  ye  : 
the  end  of  all  things  draws  nigh!  The  hills  resounded  with 
their  loud  cries  for  mercy,  and  imprecations  against  the 
priests,  the  church,  the  pope,  and  against  the  anti-christian 
dominion,  with  predictions  of  the  approaching  fall  of  popery. 
All  they  said  at  these  times  was  heard  and  received  with 
reverence  and  awe 


4f)fi  DRENCH     PROPHETS. 

In  the  year  1706,  three  or  four  of  these  prophets  came 
over  into  England,  and  brought  their  prophetic  spirit  along 
•with  them,  which  discovered  itself  in  the  same  ways  and 
manners,  by  ecstacies,  and  agitations,  and  inspirations 
under  them,  as  it  had  done  in  France ;  and  they  propa- 
gated the  like  spirit  to  others,  so  that  before  the  year  was 
out,  there  were  two  or  three  hundred  of  these  prophets  in 
and  about  London,  of  both  sexes,  of  all  ages,  men,  women, 
and  children ;  and  they  had  delivered,  under  inspiration, 
four  or  five  hundred  prophetic  warnings. 

The  great  things  they  pretended  by  their  spirit  was,  to 
give  warning  of  the  near  approach  of  the  kingdom  of  Q-od, 
the  happy  times  of  the  church,  the  millennium  state.  Their 
message  was  (and  they  were  to  proclaim  it  as  heralds  to  the 
Jews,  and  every  nation  under  heaven,  beginning  at  Eng- 
land), that  the  grand  jubilee,  the  acceptable  year  of  the 
Lord,  the  accomplishment  of  those  numerous  Scriptures 
concerning  the  new  heaven  and  the  new  earth,  the  kingdom 
of  the  Messiah,  the  marriage  of  the  Lamb,  the  first  resur- 
rection, or  the  new  Jerusalem  descending  from  above,  were 
now  even  at  the  door ;  that  this  great  operation  was  to  be 
wrought  on  the  part  of  man  by  spiritual  arms  only,  pro- 
ceeding from  the  mouths  of  those  who  should,  by  inspira- 
tion, or  the  mighty  gift  of  the  Spirit,  be  sent  forth  in  great 
numbers ;  to  labor  in  the  vineyard ;  that  this  mission  of  his 
servants  should  be  witnessed  to  by  signs  and  wonders  from 
heaven,  by  a  deluge  of  judgments  on  the  wicked  universally 
throughout  the  world,  as  famine,  pestilence,  earthquakes, 
&c. ;  that  the  extermination  angels  shall  root  out  the  tares, 
and  there  shall  remain  upon  the  earth  only  good  corn  ;  and 
the  works  of  men  being  thrown  down,  there  shall  be  but 
one  Lord,  one  faith,  one  heart,  one  voice  among  mankind. 
They  declared  that  all  the  great  things  they  spoke  of  would 


CIRCONCELLTONES.  457 

be  manifest  over  the  whole  earth  within  the  terra  of  three 
years. 

These  prophets  also  pretended  to  the  gift  of  languages, 
of  discerning  the  secrets  of  the  heart,  the  gift  of  ministra- 
tion of  the  same  spirit  to  others  by  the  laying  on  of  the 
hands,  and  the  gift  of  healing.  To  prove  they  were  really 
inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  alleged  the  complete  joy 
and  satisfaction  they  experienced,  the  spirit  of  prayer, 
which  was  poured  forth  upon  them,  and  the  answer  of  their 
prayer  to  God. 


CIRCONCELL10NES. 

THE  Circoncelliones  were  a  species  of  fanatics,  so  called 
because  they  were  continually  rambling  round  the  houses 
in  the  country.  They  took  their  rise  among  the  Donatists, 
in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Constantine.  It  is  incredible 
what  ravages  and  cruelties  they  committed  in  Africa, 
through  a  long  series  of  years.  They  were  illiterate,  savage 
peasants,  who  understood  only  the  Punic  language. 

Intoxicated  with  a  barbarous  zeal,  they  renounced  agri- 
culture, professed  continence,  and  assumed  the  title  of 
"  Vindicators  of  justice,  and  protectors  of  the  oppressed." 
To  accomplish  their  mission,  they  enfranchised  slaves, 
scoured  the  roads,  forced  masters  to  alight  from  their  cha- 
riots, and  run  before  their  slaves,  whom  they  obliged  to 
mount  in  their  place;  and  discharged  debtors,  killing  the 
creditors  if  they  refused  to  cancel  their  bonds.  But  the 
chief  objects  of  their  cruelty  were  the  Catholics,  and  espe- 
cially those  who  had  renounced  Donatism. 

At  first,  they  used  no  swords,  because  God  had  forbidden 

19 


CIRCONCELLIONE8. 

the  use  of  one  to  Peter ;  but  they  were  armed  with  clubs, 
which  they  called  the  clubs  of  Israel,  and  which  they  han- 
dled in  such  a  manner  as  to  break  a  man's  bones  without 
killing  him  immediately,  so  that  he  languished  a  long  time, 
and  then  died.  When  they  took  away  a  man's  life  at  once> 
they  looked  upon  it  as  a  favor.  They  became  less  scrupu- 
lous afterwards,  and  made  use  of  all  sorts  of  arms.  Their 
shout  was,  Praise  be  to  G-od.  These  words  in  their  mouths 
were  the  signal  of  slaughter,  more  terrible  than  the  roaring 
of  a  lion.  They  had  invented  an  unheard-of  punishment, 
which  was,  to  cover  with  lime,  diluted  with  vinegar,  the 
eyes  of  those  unhappy  wretches  whom  they  had  crushed 
with  blows  and  covered  with  wounds,  and  to  abandon  them 
in  that  condition. 

Never  was  a  stronger  proof  of  what  horrors  superstition 
can  beget  in  minds  destitute  of  knowledge  and  humanity. 
These  brutes,  who  had  made  a  vow  of  chastity,  gave  them- 
selves up  to  wine,  and  all  sorts  of  impurities  ;  running  about 
with  women  and  young  girls  as  drunk  as  themselves,  whom, 
they  called  sacred  virgins,  and  who  often  carried  proofa 
of  their  incontinence.  Their  chief  took  the  name  of  chief 
of  the  saints.  After  having  glutted  themselves  with  blood, 
they  turned  their  rage  upon  themselves,  and  sought  death 
with  the  same  fury  with  which  they  gave  it  to  others. 
Some  scrambled  up  to  the  tops  of  rocks,  and  cast  them- 
selves down  headlong  in  multitudes ;  others  burned  them- 
selves, or  threw  themselves  into  the  sea. 

Those  who  proposed  to  acquire  the  title  of  martyrs,  pub- 
lished it  long  before ;  upon  which  they  were  feasted  and 
fattened  like  oxen  for  the  slaughter  :  after  these  prepara- 
tions, they  set  out  to  be  destroyed.  Sometimes  they  gave 
money  to  those  whom  they  met,  and  threatened  to  murder 
them  if  they  did  not  make  them  martyrs. 

Theodoret  gives  an  account  of  a  stout  young  man,  who, 


COPHTS 


459 


meeting  with  a  troop  of  these  fanatics,  consented  to  kill 
them,  provided  he  might  bind  them  first ;  and  having  by 
this  means  put  it  out  of  their  power  to  defend  themselves, 
whipped  them  as  long  as  he  was  able,  and  then  left  them 
tied  in  that  manner.  Their  bishops  pretended  to  blame 
them,  but  in  reality  made  use  of  them  to  intimidate  such 
as  might  be  tempted  to  forsake  their  sect ;  they  even  hon- 
ored them  as  saints.  They  were  not,  however,  able  to 
govern  these  furious  monsters ;  and  more  than  once  found 
themselves  under  the  necessity  of  abandoning  them,  and 
even  of  imploring  the  assistance  of  the  secular  power 
against  them. 

The  Gounts  Ursacius  and  Taurinus  were  employed  to 
quell  them ;  they  destroyed  a  great  number  of  them,  of 
whom  the  Donatists  made  as  many  martyrs.  Ursacius, 
who  was  a  Catholic,  and  a  religious  man,  having  lost  hia 
life  in  an  engagement  with  the  barbarians,  the  Donatista 
did  not  fail  to  triumph  in  his  death,  as  an  effect  of  the  ven- 
geance of  heaven.  Africa  was  the  theatre  of  these  bloodj 
scenes  during  a  great  part  of  Constantino's  life. 


COPHTS 

COPHTI,  Cophts,  or  Copti,  a  name  given  to  the  Christians 
of  Egypt  who  are  of  the  sect  of  the  Jacobites.  The 
Cophts  have  a  patriarch,  who  resides  at  Cairo ;  but  he 
takes  his  title  from  Alexandria.  He  has  no  archbishop 
under  him,  but  eleven  or  twelve  bishops.  The  rest  of  the 
clergy,  whether  secular  or  regular,  are  composed  of  the 
orders  of  St.  Anthony,  St.  Paul,  St.  Macarius,  who  have 
«ach  their  monasteries.  Besides  the  orders  of  priests, 


460  COPHTS. 

deacons,  and  sub-deacons,  the  Cophts  have  likewise  archi- 
mandrites, or  abbots ;  the  dignity  whereof  they  confer 
with  all  the  prayers  and  ceremonies  of  a  strict  ordination 

By  a  custom  of  six  hundred  years'  standing,  if  a  priest 
elected  bishop  be  not  already  archimandrite,  that  dignity 
must  be  conferred  on  him  before  episcopal  ordination. 
The  second  person  among  the  clergy  after  the  patriarch, 
is  the  titular  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  who  also  resides  at 
Cairo.  To  him  belongs  the  government  of  the  Cophtic 
Church  during  the  vacancy  of  the  patriarchal  see.  To  be 
elected  patriarch,  it  is  necessary  the  person  have  lived  all 
his  life  in  continence.  To  be  elected  bishop  the  person 
must  be  in  the  celibate ;  or  if  he  have  been  married,  it 
must  not  be  above  once. 

The  priests  and  inferior  ministers  are  allowed  to  be 
married  before  ordination  ;  but  not  forced  to  it,  as  some 
have  observed.  They  have  a  great  number  of  deacons, 
and  even  confer  the  dignity  frequently  on  their  children. 
Kone  but  the  lowest  rank  among  the  people  commence 
ecclesiastics;  whence  arises  that  excessive  ignorance  found 
among  them ;  yet  the  respect  of  the  laity  towards  the 
clergy  is  very  extraordinary.  The  monastic  life  is  in 
great  esteem  among  them ;  to  be  admitted  into  it,  there  is 
always  required  the  consent  of  the  bishop. 

The  religious  Cophts,  it  is  said,  make  a  vow  of  perpe- 
tual chastity ;  renounce  the  world,  and  live  with  great 
austerity  in  deserts ;  they  are  obliged  to  sleep  in  their 
clothes  and  their  girdle,  on  a  mat  stretched  on  the  ground; 
and  to  prostrate  themselves  every  evening  one  hundred 
and  fifty  times  with  their  face  and  breast  on  the  ground. 
They  are  all,  both  men  and  women,  of  the  lowest  class  of 
the  people,  and  live  on  alms.  The  nunneries  are  properly 
hospitals,  and  few  enter  but  widows  reduced  to  beggary. 


BASIL1DIANS.  4fil 


BASIL1DIANS. 

THE  Basilidians  were  a  denomination  in  the  second  cen- 
tury, from  Basilides,  chief  of  the  Egyptian  Gnostics.  He 
acknowledged  the  existence  of  one  supreme  God,  perfect 
in  goodness  and  wisdom,  who  produced  from  his  own  sub- 
stance seven  beings,  or  aions,  of  a  most  excellent  nature. 
Two  of  these  aions,  called  Dynamis  and  Sophiz  (i.  e., 
power  and  wisdom),  engendered  the  angels  of  the  highest 
order.  These  angels  formed  a  heaven  for  their  habitation, 
and  brought  forth  other  angelic  beings,  of  a  nature  some- 
what inferior  to  their  own.  Many  other  generations  of 
angels  followed  these.  New  heavens  were  also  created, 
antil  the  number  of  angelic  orders  and  of  their  respective 
Heavens,  amounted  to  three  hundred  and  sixty-five,  and 
,,nus  equalled  the  days  of  the  year.  All  these  are  under 
she  empire  of  an  omnipotent  Lord,  whom  Basilides  called 
Abraxas. 

The  inhabitvats  of  the  lowest  heavens,  which  touched 
upon  the  borders  of  the  eternal,  malignant,  and  self-ani- 
mated matter,  conceived  the  design  of  forming  a  world 
from  that  confused  mass,  and  of  creating  an  order  of  beings 
to  people  it.  This  design  was  carried  into  execution,  and 
was  approved  by  the  Supreme  God,  who,  to  the  animal 
life  with  which  only  the  inhabitants  of  this  new  world  were 
at  first  endowed,  added  a  reasonable  soul,  giving  at  the 
same  time  to  the  angels  the  empire  over  them. 

These  angelic  beings,  advanced  to  the  government  of  tha 
world  which  they  had  created,  fell  by  degrees  from  their 
original  purity,  and  soon  manifested  the  fatal  marks  of 
their  depravity  and  corr action.  Tiiey  not  ouiy  endeavored 


.so* 


4G2  CHRISTIANS    OF    ST.   JOHN. 

to  efface  in  the  minds  of  men  their  knowledge  of  the  Su- 
preme Being,  that  they  might  be  worshipped  in  his  stead, 
but  also  began  to  war  against  each  other,  with  an  ambi- 
tious view  to  enlarge  every  one  the  bounds  of  his  respective 
dominion.  The  most  arrogant  and  turbulent  of  all  these 
angelic  spirits  was  that  which  presided  over  the  Jewish 
nation.  Hence  the  Supreme  God,  beholding  with  compas- 
sion the  miserable  state  of  rational  beings,  who  groaned 
under  the  contest  of  these  jarring  powers,  sent  from  heaven 
his  sun  JVws,  or  Christ,  the  chief  of  the  aions,  that,  joined 
in  a  substantial  union  with  the  man  Jesus,  he  might  restore 
the  knowledge  of  the  Supreme  God,  destroy  the  empire  of 
those  angelic  natures  which  presided  over  the  world,  and 
particularly  that  of  the  arrogant  leader  of  the  Jewish 
people.  The  God  of  the  Jews,  alarmed  at  this,  sent  forth 
his  ministers  to  seize  the  man  Jesus,  and  put  him  to  death. 
They  executed  his  commands ;  but  their  cruelty  could  not 
extend  to  Christ,  against  whom  their  efforts  were  vain. 
Those  souls,  who  obey  the  precepts  of  the  Son  of  God, 
shall,  after  the  dissolution  of  their  mortal  frame,  ascend  to 
the  Father,  while  their  bodies  return  to  the  corrupt  mass 
of  matter  whence  they  were  formed.  Disobedient  spirits, 
on  the  contrary,  shall  pass  successively  into  other  bodies. 


CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  JOHN. 

/  THE  Christians  of  St.  John,  a  sect  of  Christians  very 
numerous  in  Balfara,  and  the  neighboring  towns :  they  for- 
merly inhabited  along  the  river  Jordan,  where  St.  John 
baptized,  and  it  was  from  thence  they  had  their  name. 
They  hold  an  anniversary  feast  of  five  days,  during  which 


CHRISTIANS    OF    ST.    THOMAS.  4fi3 

they  all  go  to  the  bishop,  -who  baptizes  them  with  the  bap- 
tism of  St.  John.  Their  baptism  is  also  performed  in 
rivers,  and  that  only  on  Sundays ;  they  have  no  notion  of 
tne  third  person  in  the  Trinity ;  nor  have  they  any  canoni- 
cal book,  but  abundance  full  of  charms,  &c.  Their  bish- 
oprics descend  by  inheritance  as  our  estates  do,  though 
they  have  the  ceremony  of  an  election. 


CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  THOMAS. 

THE  Christians  of  St.  Thomas  were  a  sort  of  Christians 
in  a  peninsula  of  India  on  this  side  the  Gulf;  they  inhabit 
chiefly  at  Cranganor,  and  the  neighboring  country ;  these 
admit  of  no  images,  and  receive  only  the  cross,  to  which 
they  pay  a  great  veneration.  They  affirm  that  the  souls 
of  the  saints  do  not  see  God  till  after  the  day  of  judgment; 
they  acknowledge  but  three  sacraments,  viz.,  baptism, 
orders,  and  the  eucharist :  they  make  no  use  of  holy  oils 
in  the  administration  of  baptism,  but,  after  tht  ceremony, 
anoint  the  infant  with  an  unction  composed  of  oil  and  wal- 
nuts, without  any  benediction.  In  the  eucharist  they  con- 
secrate with  little  cakes  made  of  oil  and  salt,  and  instead 
of  wine,  make  use  of  water  in  which  raisins  have  been 
infused. 

In  the  Asiatic  Researches  of  the  Society  instituted  in 
Bengal,  may  be  found  an  enlarged  account  of  the  Chris- 
tians of  St.  Thomas,  which  was  laid  before  that  society  by 
F.  Wrede,  Esq.  See  also  Monthly  Magazine  for  1804, 
p.  60,  and  Dr.  Kerr's  Report  to  Lord  Bentinck,  on  the 
state  of  the  Christians  inhabiting  the  kingdom  of  Cochin 
and  Travancore. 


464  ANTISABBATAR1ANS. — ATHEISTS. 


ANTISABBATARIANS. 

THE  Antisabbatarians  are  a  modern  religious  sect,  who 
deny  the  necessity  of  observing  the  Sabbath  Day.  Their 
chief  arguments  are,  1.  That  the  Jewish  Sabbath  was  only 
of  ceremonial,  not  of  moral  obligation  ;  and  consequently, 
is  abolished  by  the  coming  of  Christ.  2.  That  no  other 
Sabbath  was  appointed  to  be  observed  by  Christ  or  his 
apostles.  3.  That  there  is  not  a  word  of  Sabbath-breaking 
in  all  the  New  Testament.  4.  That  no  command  was  given 
to  Adam  or  Noah  to  keep  any  Sabbath.  And,  5.  That, 
therefore,  although  Christians  are  commanded  "  not  to  for- 
sake the  assembling  of  themselves  together,"  they  ought 
not  to  hold  one  day  more  holy  than  another. 


ATHEISTS. 

AN  Atheist  is  one  who  denies  the  existence  of  God : — this 
js  called  speculative  atheism.  Professing  to  believe  in  God, 
and  yet  acting  contrary  to  this  belief,  is  called  practical 
atheism.  Absurd  and  irrational  as  atheism  is,  it  has  had 
its  votaries  and  martyrs.  In  the  seventeenth  century, 
Spinosa,  a  foreigner,  was  its  noted  defender.  Lucilio  Va- 
nini,  a  native  of  Naples,  also  publicly  taught  atheism  in 
France ;  and  being  convicted  of  it  at  Toulouse,  was  con- 
demned and  executed  in  1619.  It  has  been  questioned, 
however,  whether  any  man  ever  seriously  adopted  such  a 
principle.  The  pretensions  to  it  have  been  generally 


ATHEISTS.  465 

founded  on  pride  or  affectation.  The  open  avowal  of  athe 
ism  by  several  of  the  leading  members  of  the  French  con- 
vention seems  to  have  been  an  extraordinary  moral  phe- 
nomenon. This,  nowever,  as  we  have  seen,  was  too  vague 
and  uncomfortable  a  principle  to  last  long.  Archbishop 
Tillotson  justly  observes  that  speculative  atheism  is  unrea- 
sonable upon  five  accounts.  1.  Because  it  gives  no  tole- 
rable account  of  the  existence  of  the  world.  2.  It  does  not 
give  any  reasonable  account  of  the  universal  consent  of 
mankind  in  this  apprehension,  that  there  is  a  God.  3.  It 
requires  more  evidence  for  things  than  they  are  capable 
of  giving.  4.  The  atheist  pretends  to  know  that  which  no 
man  can  know.  5.  Atheism  contradicts  itself.  Under  the 
first  of  these  he  thus  argues :  "  I  appeal  to  any  man  of 
reason  whether  anything  can  be  more  unreasonable  than 
obstinately  to  impute  an  effect  to  chance,  which  carries  in 
the  very  face  of  it  all  the  arguments  and  characters  of  a 
wise  design  and  contrivance.  Was  ever  any  considerable 
work,  in  which  there  was  required  a  great  variety  of  parts, 
and  a  regular  and  orderly  disposition  of  those  parts,  done 
by  chance  ?  Will  chance  fit  means  to  ends,  and  that  in 
ten  thousand  instances,  and  not  fail  in  any  one  ?  How 
often  might  a  man,  after  he  had  jumbled  a  set  of  letters  in 
a  bag,  fling  them  out  upon  the  ground  before  they  would 
fall  into  an  exact  poem ;  yea,  or  so  much  as  make  a  good 
discourse  in  prose  ?  And  may  not  a  little  book  be  as  easily 
made  by  chance  as  the  great  volume  of  the  world  ?  How 
long  might  a  man  be  in  sprinkling  colors  upon  canvas  with 
a  careless  hand,  before  they  would  happen  to  make  the 
exact  picture  of  a  man  ?  And  is  a  man  easier  made  by 
chance  than  his  picture  ?  How  long  might  twenty  thousand 
blind  men  who  should  be  sent  out  from  several  remote  parts 
of  England,  wander  up  and  down  before  they  would  all 
meet  upon  Salisbury  plain,  and  fall  into  rank  and  file  in 

2E 


4G(>  ATHEISTS. 

tne  exact  order  of  an  army?  And  yet  this  is  much  more 
easy  to  be  imagined  than  how  the  innumerable  blind  parts 
of  matter  should  rendezvous  themselves  into  a  world.  A 
man  that  sees  Henry  the  Seventh's  chapel  at  Westminster 
might  with  as  good  reason  maintain  (yea,  with  much  better, 
considering  the  vast  difference  betwixt  that  little  structure 
and  the  huge  fabric  of  the  world)  that  it  was  never  con- 
trived ox  built  by  any  means,  but  that  the  stones  did  by 
chance  grow  into  those  curious  figures  into  which  they 
seem  to  hare  been  cut  and  graven ;  and  that  upon  a  time 
(as  tales  usually  begin)  the  materials  of  that  building,  the 
stone,  mortar,  timber,  iron,  lead,  and  glass,  happily  met 
together,  and  very  fortunately  ranged  themselves  into  that 
delicate  order  in  which  we  see  them,  now  so  close  com- 
pacted, that  it  must  be  a  very  great  chance  that  parts  them 
again.  What  would  the  world  think  of  a  man  that  shouli 
advance  such  an  opinion  as  this,  and  write  a  book  for  it? 
If  they  would  do  him  right,  they  ought  to  look  upon  him 
as  mad ;  but  yet  with  a  little  more  reason  than  any  man 
can  have  to  say,  that  the  world  was  made  by  chance,  or 
that  the  first  men  grew  up  out  of  the  earth  as  plants  do 
now.  For,  can  anything  be  more  ridiculous,  and  against 
all  reason,  than  to  ascribe  the  production  of  men  to  the 
first  fruitfulness  of  the  earth,  without  so  much  as  one  in- 
stance and  experiment,  in  any  age  or  history,  to  counte- 
nance so  monstrous  a  supposition  ?  The  thing  is,  at  first- 
sight,  so  gross  arid  palpable,  that  no  discourse  about  it  san 
make  it  more  apparent.  And  yet,  these  shameful  beggars 
of  principles  give  this  precarious  account  of  the  original 
of  things ;  assume  to  themselves  to  be  the  men  of  reason, 
the  great  wits  of  the  world,  the  only  cautious  and  wary 
persons  that  hate  to  be  imposed  upon,  that  must  have  con- 
vincing evidence  for  everything,  and  can  admit  of  nothing 
*.  a  clear  demonstration  of  it." 


GCJEBERS.  467 


GUEBERS,   OR   FIRE-WORSHIPPERS. 

GUEBEKS,  or  Guebres,  or  Gauers  (i.  e.,  infidels) ;  the 
fire-worshippers  in  Persia  ;  in  India  called  Parsees.  They 
call  themselves  Behendie,  or  followers  of  the  true  faith, 
and  live  chiefly  in  the  deserts  of  Caramania,  towards  the 
Persian  gulf,  and  in  the  province  Yerd  Keram.  These 
people,  who  are  but  little  known,  are  laborious  and  tempe- 
rate cultivators  of  the  ground.  The  manners  of  the  Guebers 
are  mild.  They  drink  wine,  eat  all  kinds  of  meat,  marry 
but  one  wife,  and  live  chastely  and  temperately.  Divorce 
and  polygamy  are  prevented  by  their  religion ;  but  if  a 
wife  remains  barren  during  the  first  nine  years  of  marriage, 
the  husband  may  take  a  second  wife.  They  worship  one 
Supreme  Being,  whom  they  call  the  Eternal  Spirit,  or 
Yerd.  The  sun,  moon,  and  planets,  they  believe  to  ba 
peopled  with  rational  beings,  acknowledge  light  as  the 
primitive  cause  of  the  good,  darkness  as  that  of  evil,  a:  id 
worship  fire,  as  it  is  said,  from  which  they  have  recen  ed 
their  name.  But  they  themselves  say,  that  they  do  i.ot 
worship  fire,  but  only  find  in  it  an  image  of  the  incompre- 
hensible God ;  on  which  account  they  offer  up  their  praj  ers 
before  a  fire,  and  maintain  one  uninterruptedly  burning 
on  holy  places,  which  their  prophet  Zoroaster,  they  say, 
kindled  4000  years  ago.  Their  holy  book  is  called  Zend- 
Avesta.  One  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Guebers  is,  that 
they  do  not  bury  their  dead,  but  expose  the  bodies  upon 
the  towers  of  their  temples,  to  be  devoured  by  birds. 
They  observe  which  part  the  birds  first  eat,, from  whicb 
they  judge  of  the  fate  of  the  deceased. 


468  NESTOH1ANS. 


NESTORIANS, 

A  SECT  of  ancient  Christians,  still  subsisting  in  some 
parts  of  Asia,  whose  distinguishing  tenet  is  that  Mary  ie 
not  the  mother  of  God.  They  take  their  name  from  Nes- 
torius,  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  whose  doctrines  were 
spread  with  much  zeal  through  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Persia. 

One  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  Nestorian  cause  was 
Barsumas,  created  Bishop  of  Nisibis,  A.  D.  435.  Such 
was  his  zeal  and  success,  that  the  Nestorians,  who  still  re- 
main in  Chaldea,  Persia,  Assyria,  and  the  adjacent  coun- 
tries, consider  him  alone  as  their  parent  and  founder.  By 
him  Pherozes,  the  Persian  monarch,  was  persuaded  to  ex- 
pel those  Christians  who  adopted  the  opinions  of  the 
Greeks,  and  to  admit  the  Nestorians  in  their  place,  putting 
them  in  possession  of  the  principal  seat  of  ecclesiastical 
authority  in  Persia,  the  see  of  Seleucia,  which  the  patri- 
arch of  the  Nestorians  has  always  filled,  even  down  to  our 
time.  Barsumas  also  erected  a  school  at  Nisibis,  from 
which  proceeded  those  Nestorian  doctors  who  in  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries  spread  abroad  their  tenets  through 
Egypt,  Syria,  Arabia,  India,  Tartary,  and  China. 

He  differed  considerably  from  Nestorius,  holding  that 
there  are  two  persons  in  Jesus  Christ,  as  well  as  that  the 
Virgin  was  not  his  mother  as  God,  but  only  as  man. 

The  abettors  of  this  doctrine  refuse  the  title  Nestorians, 
alleging  that  it  had  been  handed  down  from  the  earliest 
times  of  the  Christian  Church. 

In  the  tenth  century,  the  Nestorians  in  Chaldea,  whence 
they  are  sometimes  called  Chaldeans,  extended  their  spirit- 
ual conquests  beyond  Mount  Imaus,  and  introduced  the 


NESTORIANR.  4(59 

Christian  religion  into  Tartary,  properly  so  called,  and 
especially  into  that  country  called  Karit,  and  bordering 
on  the  northern  part  of  China.  The  prince  of  that  conn- 
try,  whom  the  Nestorians  converted  to  the  Christian  faith, 
assumed,  according  to  the  vulgar  tradition,  the  name  of 
John,  after  his  baptism,  to  which  he  added  the  surnama 
of  Prenbyter,  from  a  principle  of  modesty ;  whence  it  is 
said  his  successors  were  each  of  them  called  Prester  John, 
until  the  time  of  Gengis  Khan.  But  Mosheim  observes, 
that  the  famous  Prester  John  did  not  begin  to  reign  in 
that  part  of  Asia  before  the  conclusion  of  the  eleventh 
century.  The  Nestorians  formed  so  considerable  a  body 
of  Christians,  that  the  missionaries  of  Rome  were  indus- 
trious in  their  endeavors  to  reduce  them  under  the  papal 
yoke.  Innocent  IV.  in  1246,  and  Nicolas  IV.  in  1278, 
used  their  utmost  efforts  for  this  purpose,  but  without  suc- 
cess. Till  the  time  of  Pope  Julius  III.,  the  Nestorians 
acknowledged  but  one  patriarch,  who  resided  first  at  Bag- 
dad, and  afterwards  at  Mousul ;  but  a  division  arising 
among  them,  in  1551  the  patriarchate  became  divided,  at 
least  for  a  time,  and  a  new  patriarch  was  consecrated  bj 
that  Pope,  whose  successors  fixed  their  residence  in  the 
city  of  Ormus,  in  the  mountainous  part  of  Persia,  where 
they  still  continue,  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Simeon  , 
and  so  far  down  as  the  last  century,  these  patriarchs  per- 
severed in  their  communion  with  the  Church  of  Rome,  but 
seem  at  present  to  have  withdrawn  themselves  from  it. 
The  great  Nestorian  pontiffs,  who  form  the  opposite  party, 
and  look  with  a  hostile  eye  on  this  little  patriarch,  have, 
since  the  year  1559,  been  distinguished  by  the  general 
denomination  of  Elias,  and  reside  constantly  in  the  city 
of  Mousul.  Their  spiritual  dominion  is  very  extensive, 
takes  in  a  great  part  of  Asia,  and  comprehends  also  withir* 
its  circuit  the  Arabian  Nestorians,  and  also  the  Christians 

40 


470  NESTORIANS. 

of  St.  Thomas,  who  dwell  along  the  coast  of  Malabar.  It 
is  observed,  to  the  lasting  honor  of  the  Nestorians,  that  of 
all  the  Christian  societies  established  in  the  east,  they 
have  been  the  most  careful  and  successful  in  avoiding  a 
multitude  of  superstitious  opinions  and  practices  that  have 
infected  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  Romish  missionaries 
gained  over  to  their  communion  a  small  number  of  Nesto- 
rians, whom  they  formed  into  a  congregation  or  church ; 
the  patriarchs  or  bishops  of  which  reside  in  the  city  of 
Amida,  or  Diarbeker,  and  all  assume  the  denomination  of 
Joseph.  Nevertheless,  the  Nestorians  in  general  persevere 
to  our  own  times  in  their  refusal  to  enter  into  the  commu- 
nion of  the  Romish  Church,  notwithstanding  the  earnest 
entreaties  and  alluring  offers  that  have  been  made  by  the 
Pope's  legate  to  conquer  their  inflexible  constancy. 

Nestorius,  from  whom  the  sect  of  Nestorian  Christians 
derive  their  name,  was  born  in  Germanica,  a  city  of  Syria. 
He  received  his  education  at  Antioch,  where  he  was  like- 
wise baptized ;  and  soon  after  his  baptism,  he  withdrew 
himself  to  a  monastery  in  the  suburbs  of  that  city.  Upon 
his  being  admitted  to  the  order  of  priesthood,  he  quickly 
acquired  so  great  a  reputation  by  the  eloquence  of  his 
preaching,  and  the  regularity  of  his  life,  that  by  the  Em- 
peror Theodosius  he  was  deemed  a  fit  person  to  fill  the 
second  see  in  the  Christian  Church,  and  was  accordingly 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  in  the  year  429. 

In  one  of  his  first  sermons  after  his  promotion,  he  pub- 
licly declared  his  intention  to  make  war  upon  heretics; 
and  with  that  intolerant  spirit  which  has  so  often  disgraced 
the  preachers  of  the  mild  religion  of  Jesus,  he  called  upon 
the  emperor  to  free  the  mrth  from  heretics,  promising  to 
give  him  heaven  as  a  reward  for  his  zeal.  To  this  spiritual 
motive  he  added  one  that,  though  carnal,  he  possibly 


NESTORIANS.  17[ 

judged  of  equal  force:  "Join  with  me,"  said  he,  "  m  war 
against  them,  and  I  will  assist  you  against  the  Persians." 
Although  the  wiser  and  better  part  of  his  audience  were 
amazed  to  see  a  man,  before  he  had  tasted  (as  Socrates 
expresses  himself )  the  water  of  his  city,  declare  that  he 
would  persecute  all  who  were  not  of  his  opinion ;  yet  the 
majority  of  the  people  approved  of  this  discourse,  and 
encouraged  him  to  execute  his  purpose.  Accordingly,  five 
days  after  his  consecration,  he  attempted  to  demolish  the 
church  in  which  the  Arians  secretly  held  their  assemblies; 
and  he  succeeded  so  far  in  his  design,  that  these  people, 
growing  desperate,  set  it  on  fire  themselves,  and  consumed 
with  it  some  of  the  neighboring  houses.  This  fire  excited 
great  commotions  in  the  city,  and  Nestorius  was  ever  after- 
wards called  an  incendiary. 

From  the  Arians  he  turned  his  persecution  against  the 
Novatians,  but  was  stopped  in  his  career  by  the  interposi- 
tion of  the  emperor.  lie  then  let  loose  his  fury  upon 
those  Christians  of  Asia,  Lydia,  and  Caria,  who  celebrated 
the  feast  of  Easter  upon  the  14th  day  of  the  moon ;  and 
for  this  unimportant  deviation  from  the  Catholic  practice, 
many  of  those  people  were  murdered  by  his  agents,  both 
at  Miletum  and  at  Sardis.  One  cannot  be  sorry  that  such 
K  relentless  persecutor  should  himself  be  afterwards  con- 
demned as  a  heretic,  for  holding  an  opinion  which  no  man 
•who  speaks  or  thinks  with  philosophic  accuracy  will  now 
venture  to  controvert.  This  obnoxious  tenet,  which  pro- 
duced a  schism  in  the  Church,  and  was  condemned  by  a 
general  council,  was  nothing  more  than  that  "  the  Virgin 
Mary  cannot  with  propriety  be  called  the  mother  of  God." 
The  Deople  being  accustomed  to  hear  this  expression,  were 
much  inflamed  against  their  bishop,  imagining  that  he  had 
revived  the  error  of  Paul  us  Samosetenus  and  Photinus, 
who  taught  that  Jesus  Christ  was  a  mere  man.  The  monks 
declared  openly  against  him,  and,  with  some  of  the  moat 


472  N  ESTONIANS. 

considerable  men  in  Constantinople,  separated  themselves 
from  his  communion.  Several  bishops  wrote  to  him  earnest 
persuasives  to  acknowledge  that  Mary  was  the  mother  of 
God ;  and  when  he  would  not  comply,  they  procured  hig 
condemnation  in  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  which  deprived 
him  of  his  see.  He  then  retired  to  his  ancient  monastery 
at  Antioch,  whence  he  was  taken  four  years  afterwards, 
by  the  emperor's  orders,  and  banished  in  435  to  Tarsus. 
That  city  being  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  barbarians,  he 
was  removed  to  Panopolis,  a  city  of  Thebais;  where  he 
was  not  suffered  to  remain  long,  but  was  compelled  to  go 
from  place  to  place,  till,  being  in  one  of  his  journeys  mor- 
tally bruised  by  a  fall,  death  relieved  him  from  the  fury  of 
his  persecutors. 

If  we  examine  such  of  his  writings  as  remain,  we  shall 
find  that  he  was  very  unjustly  condemned.  It  appears 
that  he  rejected  the  errors  of  Ebion,  Paulus  Samosetenus, 
and  Photinus  ;  that  he  maintained  in  express  terms,  that 
the  divine  Word  was  united  to  the  human  nature  in  Jesus 
Christ  in  the  most  strict  and  intimate  sense  possible ;  that 
these  two  natures,  in  this  state  of  union,  make  but  one 
Christ  and  one  person ;  that  the  properties  of  the  Divine 
and  human  natures  may  both  be  attributed  to  this  person ; 
and  that  Jesus  Christ  may  be  said  to  have  been  born  of  a 
virgin,  to  have  suffered  and  died ;  but  he  never  would  ad- 
mit that  God  could  be  said  to  have  been  born,  to  have 
Buffered,  or  to  have  died.  When  we  consider  that  every 
person  partakes  of  the  substance  of  his  mother,  and  that 
it  is  this  which  constitutes  the  parental  and  filial  relation 
between  them,  it  is  indeed  surprising  that  the  expression 
"Mother  of  God"  should  ever  have  been  admitted  into  the 
Christian  Church,  or  that  any  man  who  understands  the 
meaning  of  the  words  should  condemn  Nestorius  for  noi 
having  used  them. 


PAGANS.  473 


PAGANS. 

PAGANS  are  the  -worshippers  of  many  gods,  the  heathen 
who  were  so  called  hy  the  Christians,  because,  when  Con- 
Btantine  and  his  successors  forbade  the  worship  of  the 
heathen  deities  in  the  cities,  its  adherents  retired  to  the 
villages  (pagi,  hence  pagani,  countrymen),  where  they 
could  practise  their  ceremonies  in  secresy  and  safety.  In 
the  middle  ages,  this  name  was  given  to  all  who  were  not 
Jews  or  Christians,  theirs  being  considered  the  only  true 
religion  and  divine  revelations ;  but,  in  more  modern 
times,  Mohammedans,  who  worship  the  one  supreme  God 
of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  are  not  called  pagans.  The 
idea  of  heathenism  is  of  early  origin.  Moses  used  every 
precaution  to  prevent  an  intercourse  between  the  Hebrews 
and  heathen  nations,  prescribed  the  renunciation  of  idola- 
try as  a  requisite  to  citizenship  in  the  Hebrew  state,  and 
forbade  any  league  with  the  Ammonites,  Moabites,  &c. 
When  the  kings  relaxed  in  the  observance  of  these  regula- 
tions, the  prophets  raised  their  voice  against  the  defection. 
The  distinction  between  pagans  and  non-pagans,  so  far  as 
claims  to  a  revelation  are  concerned,  is  very  slight,  since 
there  are  many  heathenish  people  who  have  traditions  of 
revelations  made  to  them.  We  also  find  in  some  religions 
of  paganism  (for  example,  with  Zoroaster,  Plato,  and 
Socrates)  pure  and  elevated  notions,  and  precepts  of 
morality,  which  would  not  disgrace  even  Christianity, 
Paganism  has  likewise  her  moral  heroes,  as  well  as  Juda- 
ism and  Christianity.  And  although  St.  Augustine  de- 
clared that  the  virtues  of  the  heathens  were  but  splendid 
vices,  yet  this  assertion  is  bv  no  means  borne  out  by  facts. 

40  • 


474  PAGANS. 

The  true  point  of  distinction  is  therefore  to  be  placed  in 
the  recognition  or  denial  of  one  universal,  perfect  Being, 
that  is,  in   the   reception  of  monotheism  or  polytheism. 
The  apostle  Paul  speaks  (Rom.  i.  23)  of  a  law  of  God 
written  on  the  hearts  of  the  gentiles  or  pagans,  and  declares 
that  pagans  who  live  by  this  divine  law  in  their  consciences, 
are  a  law  unto  themselves ;  and  that,  to  every  man  who 
does  good,  God  will  render  "  glory,  honor,  and  peace,  to 
the  Jew  first,  but  also  to  the  gentile,  for  there  is  no  respect 
of  persons  with  God."     (Rom.  ii.  10,  15.)     Clement  of 
Alexandria,  and  many  of  the  fathers,  were  of  opinion  that, 
as  God  had  given  prophets  to  the  Jews,  so  he  had  raised 
up  great  men  among  the  heathen,  and  thus  rendered  both 
capable  of  arriving  at  the  enjoyment  of  divine  happiness. 
These  views,  however,  met  with  strong  opposition.    Augus- 
tine, although   he   acknowledged   that   the   virtues  of   a 
Brutus,  Decius,  and  Regulus,  were  subjects  of  admiration, 
and  proper  models  of  imitation,  yet  maintained  the  prin- 
ciple that  all  the  noble  and  good  actions  of  the  pagans 
were  done  in  the  service  of  the  devil,  and  from  vain  glory. 
His  views  obtained  such  an  ascendency,  that  it  came  to  be 
a  generally  received  opinion  that  the  hope  of  God's  grace 
and  eternal  happiness  depended  on  a  belief  in  the  doctrines 
of  the  church.     Jerome  adopted  an  intermediate  principle, 
attributing  to  the  heathens  a  willingness  to   receive  the 
doctrines  of  the  true  church,  should  they  become  known 
to  them.     If  this  fides  implicita,  as  it  is  called,  be  any- 
thing real,  it  can  only  be  a  desire  and  endeavor  to  know 
the  truth  and  to  act  accordingly.    Others  have  maintained 
the  action  of  divine  grace  on  the  souls  of  heathens,  inde- 
pendent of  all  instruction  and  knowledge  on  their  part 
The  influence  which  the  writings  of  Augustine  exercised  at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation,  and  on  the  Reformers,  led  to 
the  reception  of  the  dogma  of  the  damnation  of  the  pagans, 


PAGANS    OF    CHINA.  475 

which  acquired  a  new  development  from  the  doctrine  of 
predestination.  Marmontel's  Belisaire  was  condemned  by 
the  Sorbonne,  because  it  professed  a  belief  in  the  salvation 
of  the  pagans. 


PAGANS  OF  CHINA. 

THE  primitive  theology  of  China  is  supposed,  by  a  num- 
ber of  learned  men,  to  agree  in  its  essential  parts  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  chosen  people,  before  Moses,  by  the  com- 
mand of  God  himself,  had  consigned  the  explanation  of  it 
to  the  sacred  records.  The  King,  or  canonical  books  of 
the  Chinese,  everywhere  inculcate  the  belief  of  a  Supreme 
Being,  the  author  and  preserver  of  all  things ;  the  princi- 
ple of  everything  that  exists,  and  the  father  of  all  living ; 
he  is  eternal,  immovable,  and  independent;  his  power 
knows  no  bounds ;  his  sight  equally  comprehends  the  past, 
present,  and  the  future ;  penetrating  even  into  the  inmost 
recesses  of  the  heart.  Heaven  and  earth  are  under  his 
government;  all  events,  all  revolutions,  are  the  conse- 
quences of  his  will ;  he  is  pure,  holy,  and  impartial ; 
wickedness  offends  his  sight;  but  he  beholds  with  an  eye 
of  complacency  the  virtuous  actions  of  men.  Severe,  yet 
just,  he  punishes  vice  in  a  striking  manner,  even  on  the 
throne ;  and  often  precipitates  from  thence  the  guilty,  to 
place  upon  it  the  man  who  walks  after  his  own  heart, 
whom  he  hath  raised  from  obscurity.  Good,  merciful,  and 
full  of  pity,  he  relents  on  the  repentance  of  the  wicked  * 
public  calamities,  and  the  irregularities  of  the  seasons,  are 
only  salutary  warnings,  which  his  fatherly  goodness  gives 
to  men  to  induce  them  to  reform  and  amend. 

Some  historians  have  also  found  in  the  Chinese  religion 


476  PAGANS    OF    CHINA. 

evident  symptoms  of  the  knowledge   of  the  Trinity,  as 
believed  among  Christians. 

The  present  religion  of  China  is  Pagan ;  but  it  is  said 
there  are  almost  as  many  sects  as  persons  among  them. 
For  as  soon  as  a  Chinese  expects  the  least  advantage  from 
it,  he  is,  without  any  consideration,  to-day  of  one  religion, 
to-morrow  of  another,  or  of  all  together.  However,  be- 
side the  worship  of  the  Grand  Lama,  there  are  three  prin- 
cipal sects. 

I.  The  followers  of  Laokium,  who  lived  five  hundred 
years  before  Christ,  and  taught  that  God  was  corporeal. 
They  pay  divine  honors  to  the  philosopher  Laokium ;  and 
give  the  same  worship,  not  only  to  many  emperors,  who 
have  been  ranked  with  the  gods,  but  also  to  certain  spirits 
under  the  name  of  Xamte,  who  preside  over  every  ele- 
ment.    Their  morality  consists  in  calming  the  passions, 
and  disengaging  themselves  from  everything  which  tends 
to  disquiet  the  soul ;  to  live  free  from  care,  to  forget  the 
past,  and  not  be  apprehensive  for  the  future.     To  remove 
the  unavoidable  fear  of  death,  they  pretend  Laokium  dis- 
covered an  elixir,  which  confers  immortality.     They  call 
this  sect  that  of  the  Magicians,  because  the  learned  of  it 
addict  themselves  to  magic,  and  are  believed  to  have  the 
secret  of  making  men  immortal. 

II.  The   most  predominant   sect  is  that  of  Foe,  who 
flourished  six  hundred  years  before  our  Saviour,  and  who 
became  a  god  at  the  age  cf  thirty  years.     This  religion 
was  transplanted  from  India  to  China,  sixty-five  years  after 
the  birth  of  Christ.     A  large  number  of  altars,  temples, 
or  pagodas,  are  reared  to  this  deity,  some  of  which  are 
magnificent  to  the  highest  degree,  and  a  number  of  bonzes, 
or  priests,  consecrated  to  his  service.     He  is  represented 
shining  in  light,  with  his  hands  hid  under  his  robes,  tc 
ehow  that  he  does  all  things  invisible.     The  doctors  of 


PAGANS    OF    CHINA.  477 

this  sect  teach  a  double  law ;  the  one  external,  the  other 
internal.  According  to  the  external  law,  they  say  that  all 
the  good  are  recompensed,  and  the  wicked  punished,  in 
places  destined  for  each.  They  enjoin  all  works  of  mercy; 
and  forbid  cheating,  impurity,  wine,  lying,  and  murder, 
and  even  the  taking  life  from  any  creature  whatever.  For 
they  believe  that  the  souls  of  their  ancestors  transmigrate 
into  irrational  creatures,  either  into  such  as  they  liked 
best  or  resembled  most  in  their  behavior,  for  which  reason 
they  never  kill  any  such  animals  ;  but  while  they  live,  feed 
them  well,  and  when  they  die,  bury  them  with  splendor. 
They  lay  great  stress  upon  acts  of  charity,  and  in  building 
temples  for  Foe,  monasteries  for  his  priests,  and  providing 
for  their  maintenance,  as  the  most  effectual  means  to  par- 
take of  their  prayers,  penances,  and  other  meritorious 
actions  towards  the  atonement  of  their  sins,  and  obtaining 
a  happy  transmigration.  These  priests  pretend  to  know 
into  what  bodies  the  dead  are  transmigrated ;  and  seldom 
fail  of  representing  their  case  to  the  surviving  friends,  a» 
miserable  or  uncomfortable,  that  they  may  extort  money 
from  them  to  procure  the  deceased  a  passage  into  a  better 
state.  They  also  threaten  the  living  with  an  unhappy 
transmigration,  that  they  may  procure  money  of  them  to 
obtain  a  happier  one,  or  leave  them  to  die  in  dread  of  the 
fatal  change. 

The  interior  doctrine  of  this  sect,  which  is  kept  secret 
from  the  common  people,  teaches  a  pure,  unmixed  atheism, 
which  admits  neither  rewards  nor  punishments  after  death ; 
believes  not  in  a  providence,  nor  the  immortality  of  the 
soul ;  acknowledges  no  other  God  but  the  void,  or  no- 
thing; and  which  makes  the  supreme  happiness  of  man- 
kind to  consist  in  a  total  inaction,  an  entire  insensibility r, 
and  a  perfect  quietude. 

III.  A  sect,  which  acknowledges  for  its  master  the  phi- 


47K  PAGANS    OF    JAPAN. 

losopher  Confucius,  who  lived  five  hundred  years  betore 
our  Saviour.  This  religion,  which  is  professed  by  the  lite- 
rati, and  persons  of  rank  in  China  and  Tonquin,  consists 
in  a  deep  inward  veneration  for  the  God,  or  King  of  hea- 
ven, and  in  the  practice  of  every  moral  virtue.  They 
have  neither  temples,  nor  priests,  nor  any  settled  form  of 
external  worship :  every  one  adores  the  Supreme  Being  in 
the  way  he  likes  best. 

Confucius  did  not  dive  into  abstruse  notions,  but  con 
fined  himself  to  speak  with  the  deepest  regard  of  the  great 
Author  of  all  beings,  whom  he  represents  as  the  most  pure 
and  perfect  essence  and  fountain  of  all  things ;  to  inspire 
men  with  greater  fear,  veneration,  gratitude,  and  love  of 
him;  to  assert  his  divine  providence  over  all  his  creatures; 
and  to  represent  him  as  a  being  of  such  infinite  knowledge, 
that  even  our  most  secret  thoughts  are  not  hidden  from 
him ;  and  of  such  boundless  goodness  and  justice,  that  he 
can  let  no  virtue  go  unrewarded,  or  vice  unpunished. 

The  Chinese  honor  their  dead  ancestors ;  burn  perfumes 
before  their  images;  bow  before  their  pictures;  and  invoke 
them  as  capable  of  bestowing  upon  them  all  temporal 
blessings. 


PAGANS  OF  JAPAN. 

THE  worship  of  the  Japanese  is  Paganism,  divided  into 
Beveral  sects. 

Among  the  various  sects  in  this  island,  the  three  follow- 
ing are  most  conspicuous : 

I.  The  Sinto,  or  ancient  idol  worship  of  the  Japanese. 

II.  The  Budso,  or  foreign  idol  worship,  introduced  into 


PAGANS    OF    JAPAN.  479 

Japan  from  the  empire  of  China,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Siam ;  and, 

III.  The  religion  of  their  philosophers  and  moralists. 

1.  The  religion  of  the  Sintos.  This  denomination  have 
Borne  obscure  and  imperfect  notions  of  the  immortality  of 
the  soul,  and  a  future  state  of  bliss  and  misery ;  and  yet 
•worship  only  those  gods  who  they  believe  are  peculiarly 
concerned  in  the  government  of  the  world ;  for  though 
they  acknowledge  a  Supreme  Being,  whom  they  believe 
dwells  in  the  highest  heaven,  and  admit  of  some  inferior 
gods,  whom  they  place  among  the  stars ;  yet  they  do  not 
worship  and  adore  them,  nor  have  they  any  festivals  sacred 
to  them,  thinking  that  beings  so  much  elevated  above  man- 
kind will  concern  themselves  but  little  about  human  affairs. 
They,  however,  swear  by  their  superior  gods,  but  they 
worship  and  invoke  those  gods  alone  whom  they  believe  to 
have  the  sovereign  control  over  this  world,  its  elements, 
productions,  and  animals ;  these,  they  suppose,  will  not 
only  render  them  happy  here,  but  by  interceding  for  them 
at  the  hour  of  death,  may  procure  them  a  happy  condition 
in  the  next  state  of  existence,  in  reward  of  their  good 
conduct  in  the  present  state.  Hence  their  dairis,  or  eccle- 
siastical emperors,  being  esteemed  lineally  descended  from 
the  eldest  and  most  favored  sons  of  these  deities,  are  sup- 
posed the  true  and  living  images  of  their  gods,  and  pos- 
sessed of  such  an  eminent  degree  of  holiness,  that  none 
of  the  people  dare  presume  to  appear  in  their  presence. 

The  Sintos  believe  that  the  soul,  after  quitting  the  body, 
is  removed  to  the  high  subcelestial  fields,  seated  just  be- 
neath the  thirty-three  heavens,  the  dwelling-places  of  their 
gods ;  that  those  who  have  led  a  good  life  find  an  imme- 
diate admission,  while  the  souls  of  the  wicked  are  denied 
entrance,  and  condemned  to  wander  till  they  have  expi- 
ated their  crimes ;  but  they  do  not  believe  in  a  hell,  or  a 


480  PAGANS    OF    JAPAN. 

place  of  torment.  One  of  the  essential  points  of  their 
religion  is,  that  they  ought  to  preserve  an  inward  purity 
of  heart,  and  to  practise  or  abstain  from  whatever  the 
dictates  of  reason,  or  the  express  command  of  the  civil 
magistrate,  direct  or  forbid. 

The  Sintos'  religion  enjoins  abstaining  from  blood,  from 
eating  flesh,  or  being  near  a  dead  body ;  by  which  a  per- 
son is,  for  a  time,  rendered  unfit  to  go  to  the  temples,  to 
visit  holy  places,  and  to  appear  in  the  presence  of  the 
gods. 

The  other  great  points  of  their  religion  are,  1.  A  dili- 
gent observance  of  the  solemn  festivals  in  honor  of  their 
gods,  which  are  very  numerous.  2.  Pilgrimages  to  the 
holy  places  at  Isje ;  that  is,  to  the  temple  of  Tensio-Dai- 
ein,  the  greatest  of  all  the  gods  of  the  Japanese.  The 
last  essential  doctrine  of  their  religion  is,  that  they  ought 
to  chastise  and  mortify  their  bodies ;  but  few  of  them  pay 
much  regard  to  this  precept. 

II.  The  Budso,  or  foreign  pagan  worship  introduced 
into  Japan,  probably  owes  its  origin  to  Budhe,  whom  the 
Bramkis  of  India  believe  to  be  Vishnu^  one  of  their  deities, 
who,  they  say,  made  his  ninth  appearance  in  the  world, 
under  the  form  of  a  man  of  that  name. 

The  most  essential  points  of  this  religion  are,  that  the 
souls  of  men  and  animals  are  immortal,  and  both  of  the 
same  substance,  differing  only  according  to  the  bodies  in 
which  they  are  placed ;  and  that  after  the  souls  of  man- 
kind have  loft  their  bodies,  they  shall  be  rewarded  or  pun- 
ished according  to  their  behavior  in  this  life,  by  being  in- 
troduced to  a  state  of  happiness  or  misery ;  that  the  de- 
grees of  both  are  proportioned  to  the  different  degrees  of 
virtue  and  vice.  They  call  their  heaven  a  state  of  eternal 
pleasure.  Their  God  Arinida  is  the  sovereign  commander 
of  this  blissful  region;  and  is  considered  as  the  patron 


PAGANS    OF    JAPAN.  481 

and  protector  of  human  souls,  especially  of  those  who  arc 
removed  to  a  state  of  felicity.  These  maintain  that  lead- 
ing a  virtuous  life,  and  doing  nothing  contrary  to  the  five 
commandments,*  is  the  only  way  to  become  agreeable  to 
Armida,  and  to  render  themselves  worthy  of  eternal  hap- 
piness. 

On  the  other  hand,  all  the  vicious,  whether  priests  or 
laymen,  are,  after  death,  sent  to  a  place  of  misery  to  be 
tormented  for  a  certain  indefinite  time,  where  every  one  is 
to  be  punished  according  to  the  nature  and  number  of  his 
crimes,  the  number  of  years  he  lived  upon  earth,  his  sta- 
tion there,  and  his  opportunities  for  becoming  good  and 
virtuous.  Yet  they  suppose  the  miseries  of  these  unhappy 
souls  may  be  greatly  alleviated  by  the  virtuous  lives  of 
their  relations  and  friends ;  and  still  more  by  the  prayers 
and  offerings  of  the  priests  to  their  great  god  Armida, 
who  can  prevail  on  the  almost  inexorable  judge  to  treat 
the  imprisoned  souls  with  somewhat  less  severity  than  their 
crimes  deserve,  and  to  send  them  speedily  again  into  the 
world.  For  they  believe  that,  when  vicious  souls  havo 
expiated  their  crimes,  they  are  sent  back  to  animate  such 
vile  animals  as  resembled  them  in  their  former  state  of 
existence.  From  4the  vilest  of  these  transmigrating  into 
others  and  nobler,  they  at  last  are  suffered  again  to  enter 
human  bodies,  and  thus  have  it  in  their  power,  either  by 
cheir  virtue  and  piety  to  obtain  an  uninterrupted  state  of 
felicity,  or,  by  a  new  course  of  vices,  once  more  to  expose 
themselves  to  all  the  miseries  of  confinement  in  a  place  of 
y>rment,  succeeded  by  a  new  unhappy  transmigration. 

There  are  several  sects  of  the  Budso  religion,  all  of 
vhich  have  their  temples,  their  convents,  and  their  priests. 

*  Those  five  commandments  are,  1.  Not  to  kill  anything  that  haa 
life.     2.  Not  to  steal.     3.   Not  to  commit  fornication.     4.  To  avoiJ 
lies,  and  all  falsehood.     5.  Not  to  drink  strong  liquura. 
41  2P 


PAGANS    OF    JAPAN. 

III.  The  religion  of  the  philosophers  and  moralists  m 
rery  different  from  that  of  the  two  former,  for  they  pay 
no  regard  to  any  of  the  forms  of  worship  practised  in  the 
country.  The  supreme  good,  say  they,  consists  in  the 
pleasure  and  delight  that  arises  from  the  steady  practice 
of  virtue.  They  maintain  that  men  are  obliged  to  be  vir- 
tuous, because  nature  has  endowed  them  with  reason,  thai 
by  living  according  to  its  dictates,  they  might  show  their 
superiority  to  the  irrational  inhabitants  of  the  earth. 
They  do  not  admit  of  transmigration  of  souls,  but  believe 
that  there  is  a  universal  soul  diffused  through  all  nature, 
which  animates  all  things,  and  which  reassumes  departed 
souls,  as  the  sea  does  the  rivers.  This  universal  spirit 
they  confound  with  the  Supreme  Being.  These  philoso- 
phers not  only  admit  of  self-murder,  but  consider  it  as  a 
heroic  and  commendable  action,  when  it  is  the  only  means 
of  avoiding  a  shameful  death,  or  of  escaping  from  the 
hands  of  a  victorious  enemy. 

They  conform  to  the  general  customs  of  their  country 
in  commemorating  their  deceased  parents  and  relations,  by 
placing  all  sorts  of  provisions  on  a  table  provided  for  the 
purpose ;  but  they  celebrate  no  other  festivals,  nor  *  pay 
any  respect  to  the  gods  of  the  country. 

There  are  innumerable  temples  and  idols  in  this  island, 
among  which  the  temples  of  those  who  profess  the  Budso 
religion  are  the  most  remarkable,  being  distinguished  for 
their  stately  height,  curious  roofs,  and  numerous  orn;v- 
rnents.  One  of  the  temples  erected  at  Miaco  is  esteemed 
the  most  sumptuous  in  the  empire.  This  temple  is  said  to 
be  as  large  as  the  church  of  St.  Paul,  London ;  and  con- 
rains  many  idols,  among  which  is  one  of  gilt  copper,  of  a 
prodigious  size,  seated  in  a  chair  eighty  feet  broad,  and 
seventy  feet  in  height.  The  festivals  of  the  Japanese  are- 
as numerous  as  their  deities.  The  number  of  monasteries 


•LAMAISTS.  485 

is  scarcely  credible.  The  monks  are  either  regulars  01 
seculars.  The  regulars  live  in  convents,  some  of  which 
contain  upwards  of  a  thousand  monks.  The  seculars  are 
dispersed  abroad,  and  live  in  private  houses.  The  former 
aro  exceedingly  abstemious,  but  the  latter  live  in  luxury 
and  idleness 

The  Roman  Catholic  religion  once  made  a  considerable 
progress  in  this  country,  in  consequence  of  a  missjon  con- 
ducted by  the  Portuguese  and  Spanish  Jesuits,  in  1549, 
amongst  whom  the  famous  Saint  Francis  Xavier  was  em- 
ployed, but  soon  relinquished  the  service.  There  were 
also  some  Franciscan  friars  of  Spain  engaged  at  last.  At 
first  the  undertaking  proceeded  with  the  most  rapid  suc- 
cess, but  ended  in  a  most  tragical  manner,  owing,  it  is 
said,  to  the  misconduct  of  the  Jesuits,  and  their  conspi- 
racy against  the  emperor.  A  persecution  commenced  of 
forty  years'  duration,  which  was  terminated  by  a  most 
terrible  and  bloody  massacre,  not  to  be  paralleled  in  his- 
tory. After  this  the  Portuguese,  as  likewise  the  Christian 
religion,  were  totally  expelled  the  country,  and  the  most 
effectual  means  taken  for  preventing  their  return. 


LAMAISTS. 

THE  name  of  the  Grand  Lama  is  given  to  the  sovereign 
pontiff,  or  high-priest,  of  the  Thibetian  Tartars,  who 
resides  at  Patoli,  a  vast  palace  on  the  mountain  near  the 
banks  of  Barampooter,  about  seven  miles  from  Lahassa. 
The  foot  of  this  mountain  is  inhabited  by  twenty  thousand 
lamas,  or  priests,  who  have  their  separate  apartments 
around  the  mountain ;  and,  according  to  their  respective 


48-1  LAMAISTS. 

qualities,  are  placed  nearer,  or  at  a  greater  distance  from, 
the  sovereign  pontiff.  He  is  not  only  worshipped  by  the 
Thibetians,  but  also  is  the  great  object  of  adoration  for  the 
various  tribes  of  heathen  Tartars  who  roam  through  the 
vast  tract  of  continent  which  stretches  from  the  banks  of 
the  Wolga  to  Corea.  on  the  sea  of  Japan.  He  is  not  only 
the  sovereign  pontiff,  the  vicegerent  of  the  Deity  on  earth, 
but  the  more  remote  Tartars  are  said  to  absolutely  regard 
him  as  the  Deity  himself,  and  call  him  God,  the  everlasting 
Father  of  Heaven.  They  believe  him  to  be  immortal,  and 
endowed  with  all  knowledge  and  virtue.  Every  year  they 
come  up  from  different  parts  to  worship,  and  make  rich 
offerings  at  his  shrine.  Even  the  emperor  of  China,  who 
is  a  Mantchou  Tartar,  does  not  fail  in  acknowledgments  to 
him  in  his  religious  capacity ;  and  he  actually  entertains, 
at  a  great  expense  in  the  palace  of  Pekin,  an  inferior 
Lama,  deputed  as  his  nuncio  from  Thibet.  The  Grand 
Lama,  it  has  been  said,  is  never  to  be  seen  but  in  a  secret 
place  of  his  palace,  amidst  a  great  number  of  lamps,  sitting 
cross-legged  on  a  cushion,  and  decked  in  every  part  with 
gold  and  precious  stones ;  where  at  a  distance  the  people 
prostrate  themselves  before  him,  it  not  being  lawful  for 
any  so  much  as  to  kiss  his  feet.  He  returns  not  the  leatt 
sign  of  respect,  nor  ever  speaks  even  to  the  greatest, 
princes ;  but  only  lays  his  hand  upon  their  heads,  and 
they  are  fully  persuaded  they  receive  from  thence  a  full 
forgiveness  of  all  their  sins. 

The  Sunniasses,  or  Indian  pilgrims,  often  visit  Thibet 
as  a  holy  place ;  and  the  Lama  always  entertains  a  body 
of  two  or  three  hundred  in  his  pay.  Besides  his  religious 
influence  and  authority,  the  Grand  Lama  is  possessed  of 
unlimited  power  throughout  his  dominions,  which  are  very 
extensive.  The  inferior  Lamas,  who  form  the  most  nu- 
merous, as  .veil  as  the  most  powerful  body  in  the  state. 


LAMA..STS.  4H5 

have  the  priesthood  entirely  in  their  hanJs;  and  besides, 
fill  up  many  monastic  orders,  which  are  held  in  great 
veneration  among  them.  The  whole  country,  like  Italy, 
abounds  with  priests ;  and  they  entirely  subsist  on  the 
great  number  of  rich  preserts  which  are  sent  them  from 
the  utmost  extent  of  Tartary,  from  the  empire  of  the  Great- 
Mogul,  and  from  almost  all  parts  of  the  Indies. 

The  opinion  of  those  who  are  reputed  the  most  orthodox 
among  the  Thibetians  is,  that  when  the  Grand  Lama  seems 
to  die,  either  of  old  age  or  infirmity,  his  soul,  in  fact,  only 
quits  a  crazy  habitation  to  look  for  another,  younger  or 
better ;  and  it  is  discovered  again  in  the  body  of  some 
child  by  certain  tokens,  known  only  to  the  Lamas  or 
priests,  in  which  order  he  always  appears. 

Almost  all  the  nations  of  the  East,  except  the  Moham- 
medans, believe  the  metempsychosis  as  the  most  important 
article  of  their  faith  ;  especially  the  inhabitants  of  Thibet 
and  Ava,  the  Peguans,  Siamese,  the  greatest  part  of  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese,  and  the  Monguls  and  Kalmucks, 
who  changed  the  religion  of  Schamanism  for  the  worship 
of  the  Grand  Lama.  According  to  the  doctrine  of  thia 
metempsychosis,  the  soul  is  always  in  action,  and  never  at 
rest ;  for  no  sooner  does  she  leave  her  old  habitation  than 
she  enters  a  new  one.  The  Dalay  being  a  Divine  person, 
can  find  no  better  lodging  than  the  body  of  his  successor ; 
or  the  Fo,  residing  in  the  Dalay  Lama,  which  passes  to 
his  successor;  and  this  beirg  a  god  to  whom  all  things 
are  known,  the  Dalay  Lama  is  therefore  acquainted  with 
everything  which  happened  during  his  residence  in  hia 
former  body. 

This  religion  is  said  to  have  been  of  three  thousand 
years'  standing;  and  neither  time,  nor  the  influence  of 
men,  has  had  the  power  of  shaking  the  authority  of  the 

41* 


B  R  AMINS. 

Grand  Lama.    This  theocracy  extends  as  fully  to  temporal 
as  to  spiritual  concerns. 

Though  in  the  grand  sovereignty  of  the  Lamas,  the 
temporal  power  has  been  occasionally  separated  from  the 
spiritual  by  slight  revolutions,  they  have  always  been 
united  again  after  a  time ;  so  that  in  Thibet  the  whulo 
constitution  rests  on  the  imperial  pontificate  in  a  manner 
elsewhere  unknown.  For,  as  the  Thibetians  suppose  the 
Grand  Lama  is  animated  by  the  god  Shaka,  or  Fo,  who 
at  the  decease  of  one  Lama  transmigrates  into  the  next,  and 
consecrates  him  an  image  of  the  divinity,  the  descending 
chain  of  Lamas  is  continued  down  from  him  in  fixed 
degrees  of  sanctity ;  so  that  a  more  firmly  established 
sacerdotal  government,  in  doctrine,  customs,  and  institu- 
tions, than  actually  reigns  over  this  country,  cannot  be 
conceived.  The  supreme  manager  of  temporal  affairs  is 
no  more  than  the  viceroy  of  the  sovereign  priest,  who, 
conformably  to  the  dictates  of  his  religion,  dwells  in  divine 
tranquillity  in  a  building  that  is  both  temple  and  palace. 
If  some  of  his  votaries,  in  modern  times,  have  dispensed 
with  the  adoration  of  his  person,  still  certain  real  modifi- 
cations of  the  Shaka  religion  are  the  only  faith  they  profess, 
the  only  religion  they  follow.  The  state  of  sanctity  which 
that  religion  inculcates,  consists  in  monastic  confidence, 
absence  of  thought,  and  the  perfect  repose  of  nonentity. 


BRAMINS. 

BRAMA  is  the  name  of  the  first  person  in  the  Trinity, 
or  Trimurti,  of  the  Hindoos,  consisting  of  Brama,  the 
creator,  Vishnu,  the  preserver  or  redeemer,  and  Siva,  the 
destroyer.  He  is  represented  with  four  heads  and  as 


BKAMINS.  487 

many  arms,  and  the  swan  is  consecrated  to  him.  Ilia 
uame  signifies  knowledge  of  the  laws^  in  allusion  to  hia 
creative  power.  He  is  the  god  of  the  fates,  master  of  life 
and  death,  and,  hy  some,  has  been  represented  as  the 
supreme  eternal  power ;  but  he  is  himself  created,  and  is 
merely  the  agent  of  the  Eternal  One.  He  is  believed  to 
die,  according  to  some,  annually,  or,  according  to  others, 
after  a  longer  period,  and  to  rise  again.  His  character  is 
no  better  than  that  of  the  Grecian  Jupiter.  He  is  con- 
sidered as  the  author  of  the  Vedas,  and  as  the  lawgiver 
and  teacher  of  India.  The  worship  of  Brania  is  regarded 
as  the  oldest  religious  observance  in  that  country. 

The  Bramins  are  the  first  of  the  four  castes  of  the 
Hindoos.  They  proceeded  from  the  mouth  of  Brama, 
which  is  the  seat  of  wisdom.  They  form  the  sacred  or 
sacerdotal  cast,  and  its  members  have  maintained  a  more 
absolute  and  extensive  authority  than  the  priests  of  any 
other  nation.  Their  great  prerogative  is  that  of  being  the 
?ole  depositories  and  interpreters  of  the  Vedas  or  sacred 
books.  There  are  seven  subdivisions  of  the  Bramins, 
^vhich  derive  their  origin  from  seven  penitents,  personages 
:f  high  antiquity  and  remarkable  purity,  who  are  said  to 
have  rebuked  the  gods  themselves  for  their  debaucheries. 
The  great  body  of  the  Bramins  pay  equal  veneration  to 
the  three  parts  of  the  mysterious  trinity,  but  some  attach 
themselves  more  particularly  to  one  person  of  the  triple 
godhead.  Thus  the  Vishnuites  are  distinguished  by  an 
ora,nge-colored  dress,  and  the  mark  called  nama  on  their 
foreheads.  The  devotees  of  Siva  wear  the  Ungam,  and 
are  distinguished  from  the  former  by  their  great  abste- 
miousness. A  Brainin  should  pass  through  four  states. 
The  first  begins  at  about  seven,  when  the  duty  of  the 
young  novice,  or  JBraehmacari,  consists  in  learning  to  read 
and  write,  studying  the  Vedas,  and  becoming  familiar  with 


488  BRAMINS. 

the  privileges  of  his  cast,  and  all  points  of  corporeal  purity 
Thus  he  is  taught  his  right  to  ask  alms,  to  be  exempted 
from  taxes,  from  capital,  and  even  corporeal  punishment. 
Earthen  vessels  belonging  to  Bramins,  when  used  by  pro- 
fane persons,  or  for  certain  purposes,  must  be  broken. 
Leather  and  skins  of  animals,  and  most  animals  them- 
selves, are  impure,  and  must  not  be  touched  by  them. 
Flesh  and  eggs  they  are  not  allowed  to  eat.  The  Bramin 
is  also  taught  to  entertain  a  horror  of  the  defilement  ot 
the  soul  by  sin ;  and  rules  for  purification  by  ablution, 
penances,  and  various  ceremonies,  are  prescribed.  The 
second  state  begins  at  his  marriage,  when  he  is  called 
Grrihastha.  Marriage  is  necessary  to  his  respectability 
His  daily  duties  become  more  numerous,  and  must  be  more 
strictly  performed.  Regular  ablutions,  fasting,  and  many 
minute  observances,  become  requisite.  The  Bramins,  how- 
ever, engage  in  secular  employments,  political,  commercial, 
&c.  The  third  state  is  that  of  the  Vana-Prasthas,  or 
inhabitants  of  the  desert,  which  is  now,  however,  seldom 
reached.  They  were  honored  by  kings,  and  respected 
even  by  the  gods.  Retiring  to  the  forest,  green  herbs, 
roots,  and  fruit  were  their  food ;  reading  the  Vedas, 
bathing  morning,  noon,  and  evening,  and  the  practice  of 
the  most  rigorous  penances,  were  prescribed.  "  Let  the 
Vana-Prastha,"  says  Menou,  in  the  Institutes,  "slide  back- 
wards and  forwards  on  the  ground,  or  stand  the  whole  day 
on  tip-toe,  or  continue  rising  and  sitting  down  alternately ; 
in  the  hot  season,  let  him  sit  exposed  to  five  fires ;  in  the 
rain,  let  him  stand  uncovered ;  in  the  cold  season,  let  him 
wear  wet  garments  ;  then,  having  stored  up  his  holy  fires 
in  his  mind,  let  him  live  without  external  fire,  without  a 
shelter,  wholly  silent,  and  feeding  on  roots  and  fruit. 
When  he  shall  have  thus  become  void  of  fear  arid  sorrow, 
and  shaken  off  his  body,  he  rises  to  the  divine  essence." 


BUDDHISTS.  489 

The  fourth  state  is  that  of  a  Sunny asi,  in  which  new  and 
severer  penances  are  to  be  performed.  Suppressing  the 
breath,  standing  on  the  head,  and  other  such  ceremonies 
are  performed,  till  the  devout  patient  rises  to  a  participa 
tion  of  the  divine  nature.  The  sanctity  and  inviolability 
of  a  Bramin  are  maintained  in  the  eyes  of  his  countrymen 
by  the  most  severe  penalties.  The  murder  of  one  of  the 
order,  robbing  him,  &c.,  are  inexpiable  sins ;  the  killing 
of  his  cow  can  only  be  expiated  by  a  painful  penance. 
To  some  travellers  it  appears  that  the  number  of  Bramina 
respectable  for  knowledge  and  virtue  is  very  small ;  that 
the  great  body  of  them  are  devoted  to  ambition,  intrigue, 
and  voluptuousness,  and  that  their  character  is  disgraced 
by  avarice,  meanness,  and  cruelty.  Their  charity  extends 
only  to  those  of  their  own  caste.  The  objects  of  their 
worship,  besides  their  innumerable  gods,  are  almost  every 
species  of  animals,  and  a  variety  of  malignant  demons. 
The  transmigration  of  souls  is  one  of  their  essential  doc- 
trines, and  they  believe  in  the  existence  of  a  hell.  Some 
of  the  ceremonies  of  the  Braminical  worship  are  horrible ; 
some  are  more  licentious  than  the  orgies  of  Bacchus. 
The  sacrifices  commonly  consist  of  vegetables,  but  animals 
are  sometimes  sacrificed,  and  the  burning  of  widows  is  a 
relic  of  the  horrid  practice  of  offering  human  victims. 

Harrell  computes  the  number  of  Bramius  in  all  Asia  at 
80,000,000. 


BUDDHISTS. 

BUDDHA  was  the  founder  of  the  very  ancient  religion 
called  after  him.  His  worship,  after  the  Bramins  had  put 
a  stop  to  it  in  India,  spread  to  Japan,  Thibet,  and  China, 
wa^re,  as  well  as  in  Ceylon,  it  exists  at  the  present  da? 


490  BUDDHISTS. 

Ritter,  in  his  VorJiallen  Europaischer  VolJcergescJiichten 
(Introduction  to  the  Histories  of  the  European  Nations), 
advances  the  opinion  that  the  Buddhists  also  migrated  to 
the  North- West,  to  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  to  Colchis, 
to  the  modern  Mingrelia,  and  thence  to  Thrace,  where 
they  laid  the  foundation  of  the  civilization  of  the  Pelasgi 
and  Hellenes.  Even  in  the  doctrine  of  Asa,  in  the  ex- 
treme north,  traces  of  Buddhism  have  been  thought  to 
appear.  According  to  Ahel  Remusat,  Buddha,  whose  his- 
torical name  was  Tshakia-muni,  was  horn  under  the  reign 
of  Tshao-Wang,  of  the  dynasty  of  Tsheu,  1029  B.  C.,  and 
died  under  the  reign  of  Mou-Wang,  950  B.  C.  Before  his 
death,  he  intrusted  his  disciple  Mahakaya,  a  Bramin  in 
the  kingdom  of  Makata,  which  lay  in  the  centre  of  India, 
with  his  mysteries.  This  Mahakaya,  who  lived  under 
Hio-Wang,  950  B.  C.,  is  the  first  saint  or  patriarch  of 
Buddhism,  which  was  left  by  him  to  his  successor,  Ananta. 
The  Japan  Encyclopedia  enumerates  thirty-three  patri- 
archs, including  Mahakaya,  in  chronological  succession, 
each  of  whom  chose  his  successor,  and  transmitted  to  him 
the  secret  doctrine  of  Tshakia-muni,  who  was  afterwards 
worshipped  as  a  god,  under  the  name  of  Buddha.  Several 
of  them  died  (or,  to  use  the  language  of  the  Buddhists, 
emigrated)  voluntarily  in  the  flames. 

Among  them,  Maming,  the  successor  of  Buddha  (by  the 
Chinese  called  Pku-sa;  in  Sanscrit,  Deva-Bodhisatua\ 
who  gave  names  to  the  gods  of  the  second  class,  was  wor 
shipped  as  his  son,  born  from  his  mouth,  because  he  per 
fected  the  doctrine  of  Buddha  by  his  own  philosophy, 
which  is  a  metaphysical  allegorical  mysticism.  His  epoch 
must  be  fixed,  according  to  the  above-mentioned  work,  in 
8o2,  under  the  reign  of  Hian-wang,  618  years  after  the 
death  of  Tshakia-muni. 

The  twenty-eighth  patriarch,  Bodhidhorma,  was  the  last 


BUDDHISTS.  491 

I 

who  lived  in  Hindostan.  He  afterwards  fixed  his  residence 
in  China,  near  the  famous  mountain  Sung.  He  died 
A.  D.  495.  The  secret  of  his  doctrine  was  left  by  him  t« 
a  Chinese,  who  was  the  twenty-ninth  patriarch.  After 
him,  the  above-mentioned  book  gives  the  names  of  four 
Chinese,  who  succeeded  to  the  same  dignity.  The  last  of 
them  died  A.  D.  713.  Their  history,  like  that  of  many 
other  saints,  is  mixed  with  fables ;  their  manner  of  living 
was  the  same  as  what  the  ancients  report  to  us  of  the 
Gymnosophists  and  Samaneans.  They  devoted  themselves 
to  religious  exercises  and  constant  contemplation,  and 
condemned  themselves  to  the  most  severe  abstinence ;  nay, 
several  of  them  sealed  their  belief  in  the  transmigration 
of  souls  with  a  voluntary  death. 

From  that  Indian  patriarchate  originated,  A.  D.  706, 
the  sacerdotal  dignity,  which  is  common  in  China  and 
among  the  Monguls,  with  the  title  spiritual  prince  of  the 
laiv.  These  priests  are,  at  the  same  time,  a  sort  of  con- 
fessors to  the  emperors.  From  this  priesthood  afterwards 
sprung  the  hereditary  dignity  of  Grand  Lama  in  Thibet ; 
and,  in  process  of  time,  the  whole  hierarchical  system, 
when  the  monastical  life  of  the  Buddhists  required  regular 
superiors,  or  inferior  lamas. 

Besides  many  other  monuments  of  the  ancient  worship 
of  Buddha,  there  are  two  particularly  remarkable  —  the 
ruins  of  the  gigantic  temple  Boro-Budor,  in  Java,  with 
works  of  sculpture ;  and  the  five  large,  subterranean  halls, 
called  Pantsh-Pandu,  probably  an  old  temple  of  the 
Buddhists,  near  the  city  of  Bang,  on  the  way  from  Guzurat 
to  Malwa.  Tradition  ascribes  these  astonishing  works  of 
ancient  Indian  architecture  and  sculpture,  which  far  sur- 
pass the  skill  of  the  modern  Hindoos,  to  the  Pandus,  the 
neroes  of  Indian  mythology. 

Harrel  computes  the  number  of  Buddhists  in  all  Asia  at 
295,000,000. 


PAGANS    IN    AFRICA. 


PAGANS  IN  AFRICA  * 

THE  natives  of  Africa  universally  believe  in  a  Supreme 
Being,  and  have  some  ideas  of  a  future  state.  They  address 
this  being  by  a  fetishe  or  fetish,  which  is  a  sort  of  charm 
or  manner  of  conducting  their  worship.  The  term  is  often 
applied  to  whatever  represents  their  divinities. 

The  negroes  of  Congo  believe  in  a  good  and  an  evil  prin- 
ciple, which  are  both  supposed  to  reside  in  the  sky.  The 
former  sends  rain,  the  latter  withholds  it ;  but  they  do  not 
seem  to  consider  either  of  them  as  possessing  any  influence 
over  human  aifairs.  After  death  they  all  take  their  place 
in  the  sky,  and  enjoy  a  happy  existence,  without  any  regard 
being  paid  to  their  good  or  bad  actions  while  here  below. 

Each  town  has  a  grand  kissey,  or  presiding  divinity.  It 
is  the  figure  of  a  man,  the  body  stuck  with  feathers,  rags, 
and  bits  of  iron,  and  resembles  nothing  so  much  as  one  of 
our  scarecrows.  The  chenoo  of  Gooloo  had  a  kissey  so  re- 
doubtable that  if  any  person  attempted  to  shoot  at  it,  he 
•would  fall  down  dead,  and  the  flint  would  drop  out  of  the 
musket.  This  powerful  divinity  was  the  figure  of  a  man, 
about  two  feet  high,  rudely  carved  in  wood,  and  covered 
with  rags. 

Kolloh  is  the  name  of  a  great  spirit,  who  is  supposed  to 
reside  in  the  vicinity  of  Yangroo,  in  Western  Africa.  He 
makes  his  abode  in  the  woods,  and  is  rarely  seen  except  on 
mournful  occasions,  such  as  the  death  of  the  king,  or  some 

*Much  valuable  information  respecting  the  religion  of  the  tribes 
in  the  interior  of  South  Africa,  will  be  found  in  Dr.  Livingston'? 
Travels  and  Explorations  in  South  Africa,  published  by  J.  W.  Brad 
ley,  Philadelphia. 


PAGANS     IN     AFRICA.  493 

of  their  head  men,  or  when  a  person  has  been  buried  with- 
out the  usual  ceremonies  of  dancing,  drinking  palm-wine, 
&c.,  in  remembrance  of  their  departed  friends. 

The  Kolloh  is  made  of  bamboo  sticks  in  the  form  of  an 
oval  basket,  about  three  feet  long,  arid  so  deep  that  it  goea 
on  to  the  man's  shoulders.  It  is  covered  with  a  piece  of 
net,  and  stuck  all  around  with  porcupine  quills  on  the  nose. 
It  has  a  frightful  appearance,  and  has  a  great  effect  in 
exciting  the  terror  of  the  inhabitants. 

O 

A  certain  man  pretends  to  have  some  very  intimate  in- 
tercourse with  this  Beelzebub,  and  therefore  he  is  called 
by  the  spirit  to  take  the  Kolloh  on  his  head,  and  to  go 
about  with  it  on  certain  occasions,  to  see  that  the  various 
ceremonies  of  the  country  are  strictly  observed,  and  if  any 
are  absent,  he  seeks  them  out  and  drives  them  to  the  place 
of  assembly. 

The  Kolloh-man  carries  a  stick  in  his  hand,  to  show  his 
authority ;  and  to  give  notice  of  his  coming  he  rings  a  bell, 
which  is  fixed  inside  of  the  Kolloh,  or  basket.  These  Kolloh- 
men  are  a  set  of  plunderers,  who  disturb  the  peace,  and 
greatly  deceive  the  ignorant  natives. 

The  fetishes  of  Whidah  may  be  divided  into  three  classes: 
the  serpent,  tall  trees,  and  the  sea.  The  serpent  is  the 
most  celebrated,  the  others  being  subordinate  to  the  power 
of  this  deity.  This  snake  has  a  large,  round  head,  beauti- 
ful, piercing  eyes,  a  short,  pointed  tongue,  resembling  a 
dart :  its  pace  is  slow  and  solemn,  except  when  it  seizes  on 
its  prey,  then  very  rapid ;  its  tail  sharp  and  short,  its  skin 
of  an  elegant  smoothness,  adorned  with  beautiful  colors, 
upon  a  light  gray  ground ;  it  is  amazingly  familiar  and 
tame.  Rich  offerings  are  made  to  this  deity ;  priests  and 
priestesses  appointed  for  its  service ;  it  is  invoked  in  ex- 
tremely wet,  dry,  or  barren  seasons  ;  and,  in  a  word,  on  aU 
the  great  difficulties  and  occurrences  of  life. 

42 


PAGANS    IN    AFRICA. 

The  people  of  Benin  believe  in  an  invisible  deity,  who 
created  heaven  and  earth,  and  governs  them  with  abso- 
lute power ;  but  they  conceive  it  needless  to  worship  him, 
because  he  is  always  doing  good  without  their  services. 
They  also  believe  in  a  malignant  deity,  to  whom  they  sacri- 
fice men  and  animals,  to  satiate  his  thirst  of  blood,  and 
prevent  him  from  doing  them  mischief.  But  they  have 
innumerable  objects  of  worship,  as  elephants'  teeth,  claws, 
bones,  dead  men's  heads,  or  any  trifle  that  chance  throws 
in  their  way,  to  which  they  make  a  daily  offering  of  a  few 
boiled  yams,  mixed  with  palm  oil.  On  great  occasions  they 
sacrifice  a  cock,  treating  the  divinity  with  the  blood  only, 
and  reserving  the  flesh  for  themselves.  Persons  of  high 
rank  give  an  annual  feast  to  their  gods,  at  which  multitudes 
of  cattle  are  offered  to  the  idols,  and  eaten  by  the  people. 
Each  offers  his  own  sacrifices,  without  giving  the  priests 
any  sort  of  trouble. 

The  religion  of  the  Dahomans,  like  that  of  the  neighbor- 
ing kingdoms,  consists  of  such  a  mass  of  superstition  as 
can  hardly  be  described.  The  objects  of  their  devotion  are 
the  sun  and  moon,  various  animals  and  trees,  and  other 
substances.  The  Portuguese  vfordfetioo,  or,  as  the  English 
pronounce  it,  fetish,  signifying  witchcraft,  has  been  adopted 
by  most  of  the  maritime  natives  of  Africa,  as  well  as  by 
the  Europeans  who  trade  thither.  Of  their  amulets,  or 
charms,  the  principal  is  a  scrap  of  parchment,  containing 
a  sentence  of  the  Koran,  which  the  natives  purchase  from 
the  Moors  who  visit  the  country,  and  which  they  hang  up 
in  their  apartments,  and  decorate  with  a  variety  of  rude 
images.  Among  the  objects  of  their  idolatrous  worship  ia 
a  species  of  snake  or  serpent,  called  Daboa  ;  they  put  it  in 
a  basket,  and  place  it  in  the  temple  destined  for  it,  where 
they  secretly  feed  it  with  rats,  but  pretend  that  it  lives 
upon  air.  The  temple  is  served  by  priestesses,  supported 


PAGANS    IN    AFRICA.  495 

at  the  king's  expense.  Every  year  there  is  a  festival  in 
honor  of  this  serpent,  at  which  the  grandees  assist,  and  for 
which  the  king  supplies  the  necessary  articles.  It  lasta 
usually  seven  days,  during  which  time  the  people  ahandon 
themselves  to  drinking,  music,  and  dancing.  Great  faith 
is  placed  in  the  serpent.  Those  who  labor  under  hodily 
pains,  apply  the  animal  to  the  part  affected,  and  pregnant 
women  offer  prayers  to  ?t  for  a  favorable  delivery.  The 
tiger  is  also  held  in  veneration,  and  there  is  a  temple  dedi- 
cated to  the  devil,  or  bad  demon.  Notwithstanding  these 
superstitions,  the  people  have  a  confused  idea  of  a  Supreme 
Being,  all-powerful  and  infinite,  whom  they  endeavor  to 
propitiate  by  their  fetish;  but  pay  him  no  other  worship, 
as  they  are  convinced  that  he  is  too  good  to  do  them  any 
evil. 

The  Ashantees  are,  perhaps,  the  most  polished  nation 
of  negroes  to  be  met  with  in  Western  Africa.  They  are, 
however,  gross  idolaters,  and  most  lavish  of  human  blood 
in  sacrifices  at  their  funerals  and  festivals.  They  say  that, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  world,  God  created  three  black 
men,  and  three  white,  with  the  same  number  of  women,  and 
placed  before  them  a  large  box,  or  calabash,  and  a  sealed 
paper.  The  black  men  had  the  privilege  of  choosing,  and 
they  took  the  box  expecting  it  contained  everything ;  but 
when  they  opened  it,  they  found  only  gold,  iron,  and  other 
metals,  of  which  they  did  not  know  the  use.  The  white 
men  opened  the  paper,  which  told  them  everything.  This 
happened  in  Africa,  where  God  left  the  black  men  in  the 
bush.  The  white  men  he  conducted  to  the  water  side, 
where  he  taught  them  to  build  a  ship,  which  carried  them 
to  another  country.  From  hence  they  returned,  after  a 
long  period,  with  various  merchandise,  to  trade  with  the 
black  men,  who  might  have  been  superior  people  if  they 
had  chosen  right.  The  kings  and  governors  are  believed 


496  PAGANS    OF    MADAGASCAR. 

to  dwell  with  God  after  death,  enjoying  to  eternity  the 
luxuries  and  state  they  possessed  on  earth :  the  paradise 
of  the  poor  affords  only  a  cessation  from  labor.  There  are 
two  orders  of  men  attached  to  the  inferior  deities  called 
fetishes.  Every  family  has  its  domestic  fetish,  to  which 
they  offer  yams,  &c. ;  some  of  them  are  wooden  figures ; 
others  are  of  fanciful  forms,  arid  different  materials.  When 
the  Ashantees  drink,  they  spill  a  little  of  the  liquor  on  the 
ground,  as  an  offering  to  the  fetish  ;  and  when  they  rise 
from  their  chairs  or  stools,  their  attendants  hastily  lay  the 
seat  on  its  side,  to  prevent  the  devil,  or  evil  spirits,  from 
slipping  into  their  master's  place.  This  evil  spirit  is  sup- 
posed to  be  white ;  doubtless  from  the  same  motives  or 
feeling  which  induces  Europeans  to  say  that  he  is  black : 
for,  indeed,  who  would  wish  to  resemble  the  devil,  either 
in  color  or  shape,  however  some  of  us  may  not  object  to  a 
resemblance  to  him  in  character  ? 


PAGANS    OF    MADAGASCAR.* 

THE  latest,  and,  no  doubt,  the  most  correct  account  of 
the  superstitious  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  people  of 
Madagascar,  is  to  be  found  in  Ellis's  History  of  Madagas- 
car. From  that  work,  the  greater  part  of  the  information 
about  to  be  given  has  been  obtained. 

It  has  long  been  thought  that  the  people  of  Madagascar 

*  A  particular  account  of  the  religion  of  the  natives  of  Madagascar, 
and  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  that  island,  and  the  per- 
secutions suffered  by  the  native  Christians  up  to  the  present  time, 
is  given  in  Ellis's  "Three  Visits  to  Madagascar,"  published  b^ 
J.W.Bradley,  Philadelphia. 


PAGANS     OF     MADAGASCAR.  497 

were  a  people  favorably  prepared  by  circumstances  to 
receive  Christianity,  for  they  have  usually  been  repre- 
sented as  being  free  from  popular  idols  and  religious 
observances,  to  any  extent  that  would  render  them  averse 
to  the  influences  of  a  better  religion  than  their  own.  This 
impression,  however,  only  arose  from  a  want  of  that  know- 
ledge which  has  latterly  been  painfully  obtained. 

The  same  feelings  and  passions  which  move  in  the 
breasts  of  other  people,  are  at  work  in  the  hearts  of  the 
Malagasy,  and  they,  moved  by  the  same  hopes  and  fears, 
and  joys  and  sorrows,  that  characterize  humanity,  have,  in 
in  their  destitution  of  the  light  of  revelation,  sought  a 
refuge  to  arm  them  against  evil,  and  to  inspire  them  with 
hope,  in  a  belief  of  charms.  They  cannot  regard  creation 
around  them  without  being  convinced  of  an  unseen  and 
powerful  agency,  and  being  unable  to  account  for  effects 
visible  to  their  eyes,  and  possessing  no  impression  of  a 
superintending  Providence,  they  consider  that  charms 
alone  could  have  effected  what  is  above  their  apprehension. 

But  while  the  Malagasy  believe  in  ody,  (charms,)  they 
have  a  conviction  of  the  infallibility  of  the  sikidy,  or  di- 
vination, by  which  the  charm  must  be  decided,  and  to  this 
must  also  be  added,  an  undefined  belief  in  some  superior, 
though  unknown  power,  whose  will  the  diviner's  art  is 
about  to  make  known.  The  art  of  the  diviner  is  considered 
as  certain  in  its  result,  though  the  premises  from  which 
that  result  issues  are  avowedly  laid  in  chances.  The 
Mohammedan  is  not  more  wedded  to  the  doctrine  of  fate 
than  the  Malagasy  to  their  "  vintana"  —  a  stern  and 
unbending  destiny. 

Though  Madagascar  has  no  visible  objects  of  worship 
calculated  to  claim  veneration,  and  charm  the  senses  to 
any  great  degree,  and  recognizes  no  order  of  priests,  yet 
it  is  not  without  its  idols,  its  ceremonies,  its  sacrifices,  and 

«-»  2G 


PAGANS    CF    MADAGASCAR. 

its  divinations.  It  has,  too,  its  altars,  its  vows,  an!  its 
forbidden  things,  (forbidden  because  hateful  to  the  sup- 
posed genius  of  the  place,)  as  well  as  its  mythology,  oaths, 
and  forms  of  benediction.  No  people  surpass  the  Malagasy 
in  credulity ;  ghosts,  witches,  apparitions,  legendary  won- 
ders, and  feats  of  ferocious  giants  and  monsters,  have  their 
full  influence  over  their  minds.  The  people  appeal  to  a 
superior  but  unknown  power  to  protect  them  from  sor- 
cery, and  to  purge  the  land  from  the  evils  of  witchcraft, 
the  innocent  blood  is  shed  of  numberless  human  victims, 
who  are  persecuted,  poisoned,  speared,  strangled,  or  hurled 
over  a  fatal  precipice.  Being  without  divine  truth,  the 
Malagasy  cling  tenaciously  to  the  superstitions  of  their 
forefathers. 

Though  they  speak  of  God,  pray  to  God,  appeal  to  God, 
and  bless  in  the  name  of  God,  yet  is  the  notion  they  form 
of  God  so  vague,  uncertain,  and,  indeed,  contradictory, 
that  it  can  be  hardly  said  with  truth  that  they  know  any- 
thing of  the  creator,  preserver,  and  redeemer  of  mankind. 
"Radama,  king  of  Madagascar,  was,  a  few  years  ago, 
offered  the  knighthood  of  the  order  of  St.  Patrick,  which 
he  declined,  assigning  as  his  reason  that  he  could  not  take 
the  oath  which  required  him  to  say  that  he  believed  in  God, 
meaning  the  God  of  the  Europeans."  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  real  belief  of  the  Malagasy  concerning  God,  is 
far  from  being  what  the  terms  found  in  their  language 
would  seem  to  imply. 

The  terms  for  God  in  the  native  language  are  Andria 
manitra  and  Zanahary,  or  Andria-nanahary,  but  th< 
notions  entertained  respecting  them  are  of  the  most  con- 
fused kind ;  whatever  is  great,  or  grand,  or  new,  or  extra- 
ordinary, is  at  once  called  Andriamanitra.  Rice,  money, 
thunder  and  lightning,  with  earthquakes,  and  other  things, 
are  called  God.  A  book  is  god,  a  deceased  king  is  god, 


PAGANS    OF    MADAGASCAB.  409 

velvet  is  son  of  god,  and  silk  is  god  in  the  highest  degree. 
"  It  is  related  of  Radama,  that  in  a  heavy  thunder-storm 
which  occurred  one  evening,  he  amused  himself  in  firing 
off  some  pieces  of  cannon.  The  British  agent  went  to 
him,  and  inquired  his  reason  for  doing  so.  '  Oh  !'  said 
the  king,  'we  are  answering  one  another — both  of  us  are 
gods.  God  above  is  speaking  by  his  thunder  and  lightning, 
and  I  am  replying  by  my  powder  and  cannon.'  Mr.  Hastife 
pointed  out  to  him  the  presumption  of  his  conduct,  and  the 
king  ordered  the  firing  to  cease." 

The  Malagasy  believe  that  when  the  body  dies,  the  mind 
becomes  "levona," —  i.e.  vanished,  invisible,  and  that  the 
life  becomes  "rivotra," —  air,  or  wind,  a  mere  breeze. 
Some  of  the  inhabitants  on  parts  of  the  coast  believe  in 
the  existence  of  four  superior  divinities,  or  lords,  who 
govern  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth  —  in  the  interior  of 
the  country  this  belief  is  regarded  as  a  fable.  The  doc< 
trine  of  a  future  state  of  retribution  is  not  known  to  the 
Malagasy.  No  conceptions  are  entertained  of  the  relation 
existing  between  the  creator  and  the  created,  and  no  moral 
responsibility  impressed  on  the  mind.  Chicanery,  lying, 
and  cheating,  are  considered  but  very  light  offences,  com- 
pared with  trampling  on  a  grave,  eating  pork  in  places 
where  it  is  forbidden,  running  after  an  owl,  or  wild  cat, 
or  preparing  any  kind  of  enchantment. 

The  Malagasy  practise  the  ceremony  of  circumcision, 
purification,  and  offering  sacrifice ;  but  they  have  no  tra- 
ditions of  the  creation,  the  fall  of  man,  the  deluge,  the 
favored  people  of  God,  or  of  the  Messiah.  The  doctrine 
of  a  Mediator,  the  birth  of  a  Redeemer,  the  salvation  of 
man,  the  renewal  of  the  heart,  the  resurrection,  the  general 
judgment,  and  the  glory  to  be  revealed,  are  unknown  to 
them. 

There  are  twelve  or  fifteen  principal  idols  in  the  vicinity 


500  PAGANS    OF    MADAGASCAR. 

oi  Tananariva,  which  excite  the  religious  dread  of  the 
people,  and  four  of  these  are  regarded  as  superior  to  the 
rest.  They  are  supposed  to  exert  more  influence  in  pro- 
tecting and  benefiting  the  sovereign  and  the  country  than 
the  others,  and  are  therefore  national  idols.  Different, 
ilans  and  districts  have  their  own  idols,  which  are  little 
/cnown  beyond  their  immediate  neighborhood.  The  idols 
of  Imerina  have  no  power  among  the  Sakalavas,  nor  have 
the  Sakalava  gods  any  influence  in  Imerina. 

Not  only  has  every  clan  its  own  idol,  but  every  house 
and  family  its  ody,  or  charm ;  many  wear  crocodiles' 
eeeth  as  receptacles  of  their  ody,  and  in  this  they  put  their 
trust  in  all  circumstances  of  sickness  and  peril,  in  life  and 
in  death. 

It  is  not  known  whether  the  kings  who  raised  the  national 
idols  to  their  present  elevation,  instituted  any  public 
worship,  for  none  is  now  offered  to  them ;  yet  still  they 
are  called  God,  and  regarded  as  such.  A  native  Malagasy 
thus  describes  the  idol  gods : — "  The  idols  are  called  God, 
prayed  to,  praised,  thanked,  highly  regarded,  honored, 
and  lifted  up :  they  are  said  to  be  that  which  causes  to 
live,  and  causes  to  die,  and  are  supposed  to  see  the  future, 
the  past,  and  the  present,  and  to  be  able  to  cast  down  the 
thunderbolts,  pour  down  the  hail,  to  remove  the  disease, 
and  inflict  curses,  and  to  assemble  the  snake  tribe  against 
all  who  calumniate  them.  It  is  said,  also,  that  their 
calumniators  are  strangled  by  them.  They  are  called 
'means  of  life,'  arid  are  kept  in  boxes."  The  serpents  of 
Madagascar  are  very  numerous ;  they  are  regarded  as  the 
particular  agents  of  the  idols,  and  on  this  account  are 
looked  upon  with  much  apprehension.  The  national  idols 
of  Madagascar  are  kept  very  secret :  to  endeavor  to  see 
them  is  a  crime.  No  strangers  are  allowed  to  approach 
the  houses  where  they  ar?  preserved,  so  that  the  materials 


PAGANS     OF    MADAGASCAR. 

of  "which  they  are  made  and  the  forms  given  to  them  can- 
not be  described  here.  When  one  of  them  is  carried  in 
public,  its  appearance  is  that  of  a  small  image  wrapped  in 
red  cloth.  It  is  elevated  on  a  pole,  that  it  may  be  borne 
along  with  greater  ease,  and  at  the  same  time  make  an 
impression  on  the  awe-struck  multitude.  Though  it  ia 
carried  along  in  this  public  manner,  the  people  are  forbid- 
den to  gaze  upon  it  —  an  inconsistency  that  can  hardly  be 
accounted  for.  The  sovereign  gives  the  red  velvet  in 
which  the  idol  is  enveloped.  A  Malagasy  idol  was  given 
on  a  certain  occasion,  and  its  appearance  was  of  the  most 
extraordinary  kind. 

The  household  gods  of  Madagascar  are  of  many  kinds ; 
anything  which  strikes  the  fancy,  or  allures  the  eye,  will 
do  for  a  god.  One  man  worshipped  a  piece  of  silver  about 
the  size  of  a  walnut,  shaped  like  a  bullock ;  he  called  it 
his  "  bullock  of  money  "  An  old  chief  had  hung  up  in 
his  dwelling  an  odd-looking  bushy  plant;  this  was  his  god. 

The  names  of  the  principal  idols  already  alluded  to  are 
as  follows :  — 

1.  Rakelimalaza.  6.  Rafaronatra.  11.  Razanaharitsimandry. 

2.  Ramahavaly.  7.  Ratsimahavaly.  12.  Ralehifotsy. 

3.  Ramanjakatsiroa.      8.  Rabehaza.  13.  Ralehimalemalema, 

4.  Rafantaka.  9.  Ravalolona.  14.  Rateisimba. 

5.  Ramanjaibola.  10.  Rafohitanana.  15.  Ralandrema. 

Of  these  fifteen,  the  two  first  are  by  far  the  most  important. 

At  a  distance  of  seven  miles  eastward  of  Tananariva,  is 
situated  the  village  of  Ambohimanambola;  this  place  is 
the  residence  of  Rakelimalaza.  The  whole  of  the  hill 
occupied  by  the  village  is  looked  upon  as  sacred.  The 
signification  of  the  name  of  the  idol  is  "  Renowned  although 
diminutive." 

There  are  certain  animals  and  objects  which  may  not  be 
admitted  within  the  sacred  precincts,  and  they  have  the 


V)2  PAGANS    OF    MADAGASCAR. 

name  of  Fady.  Every  idol  has  its  own  particular  Fady 
Gunpowder,  pigs,  onions,  a  shell-fish  called  sifotra,  robes 
that  are  striped  or  spotted,  goats,  horses,  cats,  owls,  with 
fire-arms,  and  anything  of  a  black  color,  form,  for  the 
most  part,  the  Fady  of  Rakelimalaza.  The  benefits  sup- 
posed to  be  conferred  by  this  idol  are,  —  rendering  the 
sovereign  invisible  and  victorious,  defending  those  who 
cross  rivers  from  crocodiles,  protecting  true  worshippers 
from  sorcery,  and  extinguishing  fires. 

Ramahavaly  ranks  next  in  importance ;  the  signification 
of  his  name  is,  "  Capable  of  replying:"  his  residence  is  at 
Ambohitany,  though  a  house  is  prepared  at  the  capital  for 
his  occasional  residence.  There  is  a  steep  hady  or  fosse 
round  the  idol-house,  and  no  stranger  is  allowed  to  draw 
near  to  it,  lest  the  power  of  the  charms  of  the  idol  should 
suffer  injury.  The  Fady  of  articles  forbidden  to  approach 
Ramahavaly,  are  the  flesh  of  animals  killed  at  funerals, 
and  other  things.  This  idol  most  strictly  forbids  the 
killing  of  serpents. 

Ramahavaly  is  considered  as  the  physician  of  Imeriua, 
and  is  frequently  taken  from  one  place  to  another  to  arrest 
the  progress  of  disease.  A  ceremony,  called  Miafana, 
takes  place  at  the  capital,  almost  every  year,  wherein  a 
guardian  of  the  idol  officiates  as  priest,  and  sprinkles  the 
people  assembled  as  they  pass  by,  in  the  presence  }f  the 
idol,  with  honeyed  water.  While  the  sprinkling  goes  on,  the 
priest  cries  out,  '•  Take  courage,  you,  your  wives  and  chil- 
dren !  You  have  Ramahavaly !  take  courage  for  your- 
selves and  your  property !  He  is  the  preserver  of  life  ;  and 
should  diseases  invade,  he  will  suddenly  arrest  them,  and 
prevent  them  coming  near  to  injure  you." 

The  name  of  the  idol  kept  at  the  capital  is  Raman- 
jakatsiroa,  —  i.  e.,  "  There  are  not  two  sovereigns,"  w, 


PAGANS    OF    MADAGASCAR.  503 

"  The  king  is  supreme."  This  idol  is,  however,  considered 
to  be  inferior  to  both  Rakeliraalaza  and  Ramahavaly. 

The  idol  called  Ranakandriana,  on  a  high  mountain  at 
Andringitra,  is  supposed  to  have  imparted  the  knowledge 
of  divination  to  the  Malagasy ;  and  he  is  said,  also,  to  reply 
when  any  one  addresses  him.  It  is  not  an  improbable  sup- 
position that  this  belief  has  been  brought  about  by  the  echo 
of  the  place,  every  sound  being  reverberated  very  distinctly 
among  the  rocks.  Some  years  ago,  King  Radama  resolved  to 
risit  Ranakandriana,  to  ascertain  whether  it  was  really  true 
that  an  answer  was  given  by  him  to  any  question  proposed. 
No  sooner  had  the  monarch  entered  the  dark  cavern  of  the 
idol,  and  saluted  the  invisible  divinity,  than  he  heard  a  low 
and  solemn  voice  reply  to  him.  He  then  presented  a  small 
donation  of  money,  but  immediately  seized  the  hand  that 
was  gently  put  forth  to  receive  it.  This  hand  he  held  fast, 
crying  out,  "  This  is  no  god — this  is  a  human  being  !"  At 
his  command  the  impostor  was  then  dragged  forth ;  and 
thus  the  spell  was  broken,  and  the  disbelief  of  the  king  in 
the  practised  superstition  confirmed. 

There  are  many  inferior  idols,  and  among  them  Keli- 
aianjaka-lanitra,  "  Little,  but  ruling  the  heavens ;"  Ma- 
nara-mody,  "  The  restorer  to  one's  home ;"  Rakapila, 
"  Half  dishevelled  ;"  Randrano-vola,  "  The  silver  water ;" 
Randrano-mena,  "  The  red  water ;"  Ramandronny,  rt  The 
governor  of  the  past  part  of  the  day ;"  Rafortribe,  and 
others.  Ramanandroany  is  considered  potent  in  punishing 
an  unknown  thief;  and  the  owner  of  the  lost  property  thus 
addresses  him :  "As  to  whoever  stole  our  property,  0  Ra- 
manandroany !  kill  him  by  day,  destroy  him  by  night,  and 
strangle  him !  Let  there  be  none  among  men  like  him : 
let  him  not  be  able  to  increase  in  riches — not  even  a  farth- 
ing— but  let  him  pick  up  his  livelihood  as  a  hen  pecks  rice 


504  PAGANS    OF    MADAGASCAR. 

grains :  let  his  eyes  be  blinded,  and  his  knees  oe  swollen, 
0  Ramanandroany !" 

When  any  one  wishes  to  obtain  a  favor  from  an  idol,  he 
accompanies  his  request  with  a  present  and  a  vow.  The 
keeper  of  the  idol  receives  the  offering  in  the  name  of  the 
idol,  and  retains  it  for  his  own  benefit.  Whatever  be  the 
object  of  desire,  it  is  stated  to  the  keeper,  who  repeats  it 
to  the  idol ;  and  if  the  request  be  favorably  received,  a 
wisp  of  straw  is  rapidly  whirled  round  by  the  keeper ;  but 
if  the  straw  move  not,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  idol  is  not  pro- 
pitious. If  the  request  be  for  a  safe  return  from  war,  or 
prosperity  in  any  enterprise,  or  the  birth  of  a  child,  the 
vow  made  with  the  request  must  be  fulfilled  as  soon  as  may 
be  after  the  benefit  has  been  obtained.  To  fulfil  the  vow 
is  to  bring  the  promised  offering :  this  is  called  Manala- 
voady,  the  signification  of  which  is,  "  to  fetch  away,  or 
remove  the  vow." 

Sacrifices  and  offerings  are  not  compulsory.  Each  indi- 
vidual gives  what  he  pleases,  according  to  his  riches  or 
poverty.  In  some  places  the  idol  has  the  head,  the  blond, 
and  the  fat  only,  while  the  carcass  is  devoured  by  the  saeri- 
ficers  and  their  friends  : — this  is  a  very  convenient  arrange- 
ment for  the  sacrificers. 

There  are  many  occasions  on  which  the  idols  are  pub- 
licly exhibited,  and  their  antipathies  are  then  proclaimed ; 
the  following  is  one  of  these  proclamations: — "Practise 
abstinence  well ;  let  each  of  you  take  good  heed  to  avoid 
what  is  prohibited  by  his  idol,  whose  antipathies  are  the 
pig ; — let  him  take  heed  that  it  have  no  access  to  the  vil- 
lages of  his  abode.  The  snail,  musket,  and  onions,  let  them 
not  be  borne  there ;  and  the  goat  and  the  horse,  suffer  them 
not  to  ascend  his  villages ;  and  in  the  time  of  thunder  (that 
is,  summer),  the  children  shall  not  play  at  kicking  each 
other  blue.  Ye  shall  not  throw  dirt  at  euch  other;  for  these 


PAGANS     OF    MADAGASCAR.  SOS 

things  are  his  antipathies,  so  do  not  these  things,  but  take 
good  heed." 

The  processions  of  the  idols  are  curious.  In  one  of  them 
the  first  man  carries  the  symbol  of  the  idol  on  the  top  of  a 
pole  twenty  feet  in  height.  Round  the  symbol,  and  round 
the  top  of  the  pole,  is  wrapped  scarlet  velvet,  which  hang 
down  like  the  skirts  of  a  child's  doll.  The  next  man  bears 
a  bullock's  horn,  filled  with  honey-water,  while  in  his  right 
hand  he  holds  a  bunch  of  twigs,  to  be  used  in  sprinkling. 
Then  come  fifty  fine  young  men,  each  one  carrying  in  his 
left  hand  a  bundle  of  grass  containing  a  serpent ;  his  right 
hand  is  left  free,  that  he  may  seize  the  reptile  with  it  when 
he  pleases.  These  young  men  walk  two  abreast,  and 
brandish  their  arms  about  continually.  When  the  proces- 
sion arrives  at  any  place  considered  to  be  affected  with 
sorcery  or  evil  of  any  kind,  it  is  sprinkled  to  purify  it,  and 
preserve  it  from  harm ;  and  when  any  fence  or  building  is 
approached  that  is  repugnant  to  the  idol,  a  small  pwt  of  it 
is  removed,  as  a  sign  that  it  must  be  taken  down ;  &nd  with 
this  requirement  the  owner  of  it  is  obliged  to  comply. 

It  was  once  thought  that  no  human  victims  wer  3  slain, 
but  this  impression  is  incorrect.  Human  sacrific  e*  were 
offered  in  former  times  in  the  province  of  Vangan*rano. 
An  immolation  took  place  every  Friday,  and  chiefn  and 
principal  men  were  often  slain  as  a  more  costly  sacrif  ce  to 
the  blood-thirsty  Moloch  who  presided.  The  victims  were 
speared,  and  devoured  by  dogs  and  birds.  These  sacrifices 
were  not,  strictly  speaking,  offered  directly  to  the  Hoi. 
The  victims  were  slain  before  an  enormous  pole,  on  the  top 
of  which  ody,  or  charms,  were  suspended,  and  the  inr  an- 
tation  and  sacrifices  were,  both  together,  expected  to  w  >rk 
wondrous  effects. 

There  are  two  ceremonies  connected  with  the  religk  -is 
rites  of  Ankova,  called  Faditra  and  Afana.  The  firsi  is 

43 


{,06  PAOANS     OF     MADAGASCAR. 

anything  chosen  by  the  sikidy  for  the  removal  of  diseases  ; 
it  may  be  ashes,  a  sheep,  cut  money,  or  a  pumpkin.  The 
priest  reckons  upon  it  all  the  evils  that  may  be  hurtful  to 
the  person  for  whom  it  is  made,  and  charges  the  Faditra 
to  take  them  away  forever.  If  the  Faditra  be  ashes,  the 
wind  is  allowed  to  blow  it  away ;  if  money,  it  is  cast  into 
deep  water ;  if  a  sheep,  it  is  carried  to  a  great  distance  on 
the  shoulders  of  a  man  who  runs  along,  complaining  all 
the  while  of  the  evils  the  Faditra  is  carrying  away ;  and 
if  it  be  a  pumpkin,  it  is  carried  to  a  distance,  and  dashed 
in  pieces  against  the  ground. 

The  Afana  is  performed  at  the  grave  of  a  person  lately 
buried,  and  consists  of  slaughtering  cattle  and  feasting, 
accompanied  with  firing  of  muskets  or  cannon.  The  skulls 
of  the  slaughtered  cattle  are  fixed  on  poles,  at  the  head 
of  the  tomb.  This  is  done  to  take  evil  from  the  dead,  that 
he  may  repose  in  peace.  The  last  kind  act  which  can  be 
performed  for  the  dead  is  the  ceremony  of  the  Afana. 

The  tern:  Vazimba  has  three  significations,  but  in  its 
strictest  sense  it  designates  the  aborigines  of  the  interior 
of  Madagascar.  The  graves  of  the  Vazimba  are  numerous, 
and  to  violate  them  in  the  slightest  degree  is  a  very  heavy 
crime.  So  terribly  tenacious  and  revengeful  are  the  ghosts 
of  the  Vazimba  said  to  be,  that  an  accidental  stumble 
against  one  of  their  resting-places  would  bring  down  a 
terrible  doom  on  the  inadvertent  offender. 

There  are  two  characters  attributed  to  the  Vazimba: 
When  a  Vazimba  grants  what  is  asked  of  him,  he  is  called 
masina  —  holy,  forgiving,  and  effective;  when  he  does  not 
grant  it,  and  occasions  evil,  he  is  called  masiaka  —  fierce 
and  implacable. 

To  convince  the  Malagasy  of  the  folly  of  their  feara 
respecting  the  Vazimba,  the  missionaries  cut  off  a  branch 
from  a  tree  growing  near  the  most  popular  Vazimba  grave, 


PAGANS     OF    MADAGASCAR.  507 

and  also  carried  away  one  of  the  stones.  This  absolutely 
terrified  some  young  men  who  were  present,  and  they 
doubted  not  that  some  terrible  accident  Avould  avenge  the 
impiety,  or  that  the  Vazimba  would  appear  to  resent  the 
affront  offered  to  the  tomb.  Day  after  day  the  missiona- 
ries inquired  if  the  Vazimba  had  appeared,  and  the  young 
men  were  convinced  that  their  fears  were  groundless. 
When,  however,  the  missionaries  asked  them  whether  their 
parents  were  convinced  that  no  danger  was  to  be  appre- 
hended, they  replied  —  "  No  !  our  parents  say  that  you 
white  people  have  some  strong  charms  which  the  Vazimba 
are  not  able  to  resist." 

Reports  were  circulated,  after  the  death  of  king  Radama, 
that  he  was  seen  one  night  in  his  garden,  dressed  in  one 
of  the  uniforms  buriod  with  him  in  his  silver  coffin,  and 
riding  on  one  of  his  best  horses.  Old  Andrianaraba,  one 
of  the  principal  ministers,  was  immediately  sent  by  the 
queen,  attended  by  many  priests,  to  ask  Radama  why  he 
came  again  to  disturb  them.  The  priests  had  with  them 
the  idols  and  sikidy,  and  they  sacrificed  a  bullock  on  the 
occasion.  The  priests  inquired  of  Radama  whether  they 
had  not  buried  property  enough  in  his  tomb  ?  and  whether 
he  did  not  turn  his  back  upon  thsin  of  his  own  accord,  for 
they  had  not  driven  him  away.  It  seems  that  this  atten- 
tion, in  the  opinion  of  the  Malagasy,  appeased  the  ghost 
of  the  old  monarch,  and  it  came  again  no  more.  It  is  not 
known  what  is  the  origin  of  the  term  sikidy.  The  word 
means,  among  the  Malagasy,  a  certain  kind  of  divination, 
to  which  they  are  devotedly  attached.  It  is  not  astrology, 
nor  is  it  necromancy.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  flight 
of  birds,  the  inspection  of  the  entrails  of  slaughtered  ani- 
mals, nor  the  interpretation  of  dreams.  It  partakos  noithe.- 
of  the  nature  of  magic,  legerdemain,  nor  ordinary  inc/anta- 
tion.  It  is  the  mode  of  working  a  particular  process  wiib 


508  PAGANS   OF   POLYNESIA. 

Deans,  straw,  rice,  or  sand.     The  rules  for  this  are  fixed 
and  invariable,  and  the  result  is  considered  certain. 

Missionary  efforts  have  been  successfully  made  in  Mada- 
gascar; schools  have  been  formed,  and  a  Malagasy  Bible 
has  been  printed :  but  since  the  death  of  King  Radama, 
the  queen  has  prohibited  the  profession  of  the  Christian 
faith  by  the  natives ;  indeed,  the  profession  of  Christianity 
and  the  observance  of  Christian  ordinances  are  punishable 
with  death.  At  the  present  time  a  strong  persecution  is 
carried  on  against  the  native  Christians,  and  the  missiona- 
ries have  left  the  island.  A  young  woman  named  Rassa- 
lama  has  been  cruelly  put  to  death.  She  was  severely 
flogged  for  several  days  before  her  life  was  taken.  Raf'a- 
ralahy,  a  young  man,  has  also  been  put  to  death  for  pro- 
fessing the  Christian  faith.  He  died  with  great  firmness 
and  constancy.  The  reported  death  of  Rafaravavy,  who 
was  accused  to  the  government  of  possessing  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  and  reading  them,  is  not  correct.  There  is  now 
but  little  prospect  of  the  superstitious  rites  and  ceremonies 
of  Madagascar  being  soon  exchanged  for  the  Christian 
faith. 


PAGANS    OF    POLYNESIA. 

POLYNESIA  is  a  name  given  by  geographers  to  the  great 
body  of  islands  scattered  over  the  Pacific  ocean,  between 
Australasia  and  the  Philippines,  and  the  American  conti- 
nent. It  extends  from  lat.  35°  N.  to  50°  S. ;  and  from 
Ion.  170°  to  230°  E. ;  an  extent  of  5000  miles  from  north 
to  south,  and  3600  from  west  to  east.  It  includes,  there- 
fore, the  Sandwich  Islands,  the  Marquesas,  Navigators, 


PAGANS    Of    POLYNESIA.  509 

Society,  Mulgrave,  Friendly,  Ladrone,  and  Pelew  Isles, 
the  Caroline!;,  Pitcairn's  Island,  &c. 

A  general  similarity  in  respect  to  the  objects  of  religious 
worship,  as  well  as  the  forms  of  idolatrous  and  superstitious 
practices,  obtains  throughout  the  whole  of  Polynesia ; 
although  some  differences  may  be  found  between  groups 
of  islands,  and  even  between  islands  belonging  to  the  same 
group. 

The  supreme  deity  of  Polynesia,  who  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  creator  of  the  world,  and  the  parent  of 
gods  and  men,  has  different  names  in  different  groups. 
By  the  Tahitians,  he  is  called  Taaroa  ;  by  the  Hawaiians, 
Tanaroa ;  and  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  western  isles, 
Tangaroa.  According  to  one  of  the  legends  of  the  Tahi- 
tian  mythology,  Taaroa  was  born  of  Night,  or  proceeded 
from  Chaos,  as  did  his  consort  Ofeufeumaiterai.  Oro,  the 
great  national  idol  of  Raitea,  Tahiti,  Eimeo,  and  some 
other  islands,  was  the  son  of  the  foregoing.  Oro  took  a 
goddess  to  wife,  who  became  the  mother  of  two  sons. 
These  four  male  and  two  female  deities  constituted  their 
divinities  of  the  highest  rank.  This  was  the  catalogue 
furnished  the  missionaries  by  the  priests  of  Tahiti.  Other 
gods  of  high  and  uncreated  order,  however,  are  mentioned, 
as  Raa,  Tane,  &c.  Besides  the  above,  they  had  numerous 
other  inferior  deities. 

The  image  of  Taaroa  cannot  well  be  described.  It  may 
Le  stated,  however,  in  respect  to  one,  which  was  taken 
from  the  temple  at  Rurutu,  that  it  bore  some  resemblance 
to  the  human  figure.  It  was  about  four  feet  high,  and 
twelve  or  fifteen  inches  broad,  and  was  carved  out  of  a  solid 
piece  of  close,  white,  durable  wood.  On  his  face  and  body 
a  great  number  of  images  were  formed,  denoting  the 
aumber  of  gods  which  had  proceeded  from  him ;  the  image 
ras  hollow,  and  within  was  found  a  number  of  small  idols 

43* 


510  PAGANS    OF    POLYNESIA. 

In  the  Sandwich  Islands  there  is  a  resemblance  among 
all  their  idols.  The  head  has  generally  a  horrid  appear- 
ance, the  mouth  being  large,  and  usually  extended  wide, 
exhibiting  a  row  of  large  teeth,  resembling  the  cogs  in  the 
wheel  of  an  engine,  and  adapted  to  excite  terror  rather 
than  inspire  confidence.  Some  of  these  idols  are  of  stone ; 
others  are  composed  of  wicker  work  covered  with  red 
feathers. 

The  Polynesian  temples  are  of  three  classes— national, 
local,  and  domestic.  In  the  first  are  deposited  their  prin- 
cipal idols,  and  in  and  around  them  are  held  their  great 
festivals ;  the  second  belong  to  the  several  districts ;  the 
third  are  appropriated  to  the  worship  of  their  household 
gods.  In  the  South  Sea  islands  the  name  of  their  temples 
was  Marae ;  these  were  buildings  of  a  rude  construction, 
and  resembled  oratories  more  than  temples. 

The  worship  of  the  Polynesians  consists  of  prayers, 
offerings,  and  sacrifices.  In  their  prayers,  they  address 
their  gods  either  in  a  kneeling  posture,  cross-legged,  or 
crouching.  Lil  e  the  Pharisees  in  the  days  of  our  Sai  iour, 
they  extend  their  supplications  to  a  great  length,  an»l  use 
many  vain  repetitions,  thereby  hoping  to  recom  nend 
themselves  to  the  special  notice  of  the  deity.  Their  offer- 
ings consist  of  fowls,  fishes,  beasts  of  the  field,  fru-ts  of 
the  earth,  and  manufactures  of  various  kinds.  When 
animals  are  offered,  they  are  generally  whole ;  but  fruits 
are  commonly,  dressed.  Portions  of  the  offerings  a>  a  con- 
sidered sacred,  and  may  not  be  eaten ;  the  reman  tier  is 
monopolized  by  the  priests,  and  other  sacred  persoi  «s,  who 
'  are  privileged  to  eat  of  the  sacrifices.  Human  yictims 
were  formerly  offered  in  great  numbers,  especially  in 
seasons  of  war,  at  great  national  festivals,  during  the  ill- 
ness of  their  rulers,  and  on  the  erection  of  their  temple*. 


PAGANS    OF    POLYNESIA.  51i 

When  an  individual  had  been  selected  for  sacrifice,  the 
family  to  which  he  belonged  was  said  to  be  tabu,  i.  e. 
devoted  ;  and,  hence,  if  another  victim  was  wanted,  it  was 
likely  to  be  taken  from  such  a  family.  When  the  person 
was  about  to  be  sacrificed,  he  was  generally  murdered  at  a 
moment  when  he  was  little  expecting  the  stroke.  As  soon 
as  dead,  his  body  was  placed  in  a  long  basket,  and  carried 
to  the  temple.  Here  it  was  offered,  not  by  burning  it, 
but  by  placing  it  before  the  idol.  After  a  variety  of  cere- 
monies by  the  priests,  among  which  one  was  to  pluck  out 
an  eye  of  the  victim,  which,  being  placed  on  a  plantain  leaf, 
was  handed  to  the  king,  who  passed  it  to  his  mouth,  as  if 
he  would  eat  it;  the  body  was  wrapped  in  a  basket  of 
cocoa-nut  leaves,  and  frequently  deposited  on  the  branches 
of  a  neighboring  tree.  Here  having  remained  a  consider- 
able  time,  during  which  it  became  dry  and  shrivelled,  it 
was  taken  down,  and  the  bones  were  buried  beneath  the 
wide  pavement  of  the  Marae. 

The  religious  system  of  the  Samoans  differs  essentially 
from  that  which  obtained  at  the  Tahitian,  Society,  and 
other  islands.  They  have  neither  inaraes,  nor  temples, 
nor  altars,  nor  offerings ;  and,  consequently,  none  of  the 
barbarous  and  sanguinary  rites  observed  at  the  other 
groups.  On  this  acconnt  the  Samoans  were  considered 
an  impious  race.  When  the  people  of  Rarotongo  upbraided 
a  person  who  had  neglected  the  worship  of  the  gods,  they 
called  bin  "  a  godless  Samoan." 

The  objects  worshipped  by  them  were  of  three  kinds  — 
their  deified  ancestors,  their  idols,  and  their  etus.  Many 
of  their  ancestors  were  deified  for  conferring  supposed 
benefits  upon  mankind.  It  was  believed  that  the  world 
was  once  in  darkness ;  but  that  one  of  their  progenitors, 
by  an  absurd  process,  created  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars. 
For  this  he  was  worshipped,  until  the  light  of  Christianity 


512  PAGANS    OF    POLYNESIA. 

aawnel  upon  them.  The  chief  of  Aitutaki  gave  a  short 
account  of  the  relics  of  idolatry.  The  following  selection 
may  give  the  reader  a  general  idea  of  the  whole  :  — 

An  idol  named  Te-rongo,  one  of  the  great  deities,  called 
a  kai-tangata,  or  man-eater.  The  priests  of  this  idol  were 
supposed  to  be  inspired  by  the  shark. 

Tangaroa,  the  great  national  god  of  Aitutaki,  and  of 
almost  all  the  adjacent  islands.  He  holds  the  net  with 
which  he  catches  the  spirits  of  men  as  they  fly  from  their 
bodies,  and  a  spear  with  which  he  kills  them. 

A  rod,  with  snares  at  the  end,  made  of  the  fibres  of 
the  cocoa-nut  husk,  with  which  the  priest  caught  the  spirit 
of  the  god.  It  was  used  in  cases  of  pregnancy,  when  the 
female  was  ambitious  that  her  child  should  be  a  son,  and 
become  a  famous  warrior.  It  was  also  employed  in  war 
time  to  catch  the  god  by  the  leg,  to  secure  his  influence 
on  the  side  of  the  party  performing  the  ceremony. 

E-uanuu,  a  chief  from  Raiatea,  who,  ages  ago,  sailed  in 
a  canoe  from  that  island,  and  settled  at  Aitutaki.  From 
him  a  genealogy  is  traced.  He  died  at  Aitutaki,  and  was 
deified,  as  Te  atua  taitai  tere,  or  the  conductor  of  fleets. 
Ihe  Raiateans  have  several  interesting  traditions  connected 
with  Ruanuu.  To  this  idol  was  appended  an  old  tattered 
silk  handkerchief,  and  the  foot  of  a  wine-glass ;  both  of 
which  were  obtained  from  Captain  Cook's  vessel,  and 
dedicated  to  Ruanuu,  the  "god  or  guide  of  fleets,"  f.r 
conducting  that  celebrated  navigator  to  their  shores. 

Taau,  with  his  fan,  &c.,  the  god  of  thunder.  When  the 
thunder  pealed,  the  natives  said  that  this  god  was  flying, 
and  producing  this  sound  by  the  flapping  of  his  wings. 


PAGANS    OF    LAPLAND. 


PAGANS  OF  LAPLAND 

FROM  the  time  that  so  large  a  portion  of  Lapland  fell 
ttider  the  dominion  of  Sweden,  repeated  attempts  were 
r^ade  to  convert  the  natives  to  the  Christian  faith ;  and 
the  same  object  was  diligently  prosecuted  by  the  Danish 
government.  The  Laplanders,  however,  continued  to  retain 
a  strong  attachment  to  their  ancient  mythology ;  and  even 
BO  late  as  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  great 
part  of  the  nation  secretly  worshipped  idols  while  publicly 
professing  the  Christian  religion. 

To  these  idols  were  presented  various  offerings  and  sacri- 
fices. Upon  any  change  of  habitation,  libations  were  made 
of  whey  or  milk,  to  conciliate  the  guardian  divinity  of  the 
place ;  and  of  brandy  to  the  Lares  or  household  gods,  who 
were  supposed  to  reside  under  the  fire-place.  To  conci- 
liate the  favor  of  the  deities  to  their  children,  sacrifices  of 
sheep  or  deer  were  offered,  before  the  child  was  born :  a 
dog  was  buried  alive  at  the  moment  of  the  birth ;  and  some 
other  animal  killed  when  the  infant  was  at  the  breast. 
Offerings  and  sacrifices  were  usually  made  for  the  removal 
of  epidemic  disorders,  for  success  in  hunting,  &c.  In  these 
cases,  sometimes  the  whole  of  the  victim  was  presented, 
sometimes  only  a  part,  sometimes  merely  the  bones,  while 
the  blood  was  sprinkled  upon  staves,  which  were  left  on 
the  spot,  or  mingled  with  the  waters  of  an  adjacent  river 
or  lake.  The  liver  of  a  bear,  the  horns  and  other  parts 
of  a  deer,  taken  in  the  chase,  were  very  frequently  conse- 
crated to  the  deity  of  the  place. 

The  Laplanders,  according  to  Picart,  worship  their  gcda 
under  the  form  of  a  tree,  or  block  of  wood,  the  top  of  which 

211 


514  PAGANS    OF    LAPLAND. 

they  form  into  a  rude  resemblance  of  a  man's  head.  I* 
the  head  they  were  wont  to  drive  a  large  nail,  to  which  waa 
fastened  a  flint  stone,  that  he  might  make  himself  a  fire  when 
ever  he  found  one  needful.  Sometimes  their  god  was  raised 
upon  a  kind  of  table,  which  served  in  capacity  of  an  altar. 
Their  domestic  deity,  or  household  god,  they  represented 
under  the  form  of  a  large  stone,  carved  in  a  rude  manner, 
and  bearing  some  resemblance  to  a  human  face.  The  sa- 
crifices which  were  offered  to  these  idols  were  presented  by 
a  privileged  class  of  men,  named  Noaaids,  who  divided  the 
victims  with  great  expertness,  and  wore  at  the  time  of  sacri- 
ficing a  peculiar  habit. 

The  Laplanders  still  retain  much  of  their  ancient  super 
stitious  spirit,  even  in  the  Christian  rites  which  they  have 
adopted.  They  particularly  regard  the  sacrament  as  a 
powerful  charm  to  preserve  them  from  the  attempts  of  evil 
spirits.  It  is  not  long  since  they  used  to  take  a  cloth  with 
them  to  church,  into  which  they  were  accustomed  to  spit 
out  the  sacramental  bread,  which  they  wrapped  up  with 
great  care,  and  afterwards  divided  into  as  great  a  number 
as  possible  of  small  crumbs.  One  of  these  crumbs  was 
given  to  every  one  of  their  cattle,  in  the  full  persuasion 
that  the  herd  would  thus  be  secure  from  all  injury.  Their 
very  deficient  acquaintance  with  Christianity  may,  in  some 
measure,  be  ascribed  to  the  very  inefficient  manner  in 
which  they  are  instructed.  It  has  generally  been  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Missionaries  and  pastors  to  address  the  natives 
by  means  of  an  interpreter,  and  the  attempts  of  the  Danish 
government  to  remedy  this  defect  have  hitherto  proved 
unsuccessful. 


PA3ANS    OF    NORTH    AMERICA.  515 


PAGANS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

THE  aborigines  of  New  England  no*  only  believed  in  a 
plurality  of  gods  who  made  and  govern  tbe  several  nations 
of  the  world,  but  they  made  deities  of  everything  they  ima 
gined  to  be  great,  powerful,  beneficial,  or  hurtful  to  man- 
kind ;  yet  they  conceived  an  almighty  Being,  who  dwells  in 
the  southwest  regions  of  the  heavens,  to  be  superior  to  all 
the  rest.  This  almighty  Being  they  called  Kichtan,  who 
at  first,  according  to  their  tradition,  made  a  man  and  a 
woman  out  of  a  stone ;  but,  upon  some  dislike,  destroyed 
them  again,  and  then  made  another  couple  out  of  a  tree, 
from  whom  descended  all  the  nations  of  the  earth :  but  how 
they  came  to  be  scattered  and  dispersed  into  countries  so 
remote  from  one  another,  they  cannot  tell.  They  believed 
their  supreme  God  to  be  a  good  being,  and  paid  a  sort  of 
acknowledgment  to  him  for  plenty,  victory,  and  other  bene- 
fits. But  there  is  another  power,  which  they  call  Hoha- 
mocko  (i.e.,  the  devil),  of  whom  they  stood  in  greater  awe, 
and  worshipped-merely  from  a  principle  of  fear.  The  im- 
mortality of  the  soul  was  in  some  sort  universally  believed 
among  them.  When  good  men  die,  they  said  their  spirits 
go  to  Kichtan,  where  they  meet  their  friends,  and  enjoy 
all  manner  of  pleasures.  When  wicked  men  die,  they  go 
to  Kichtan  also;  but  are  commanded  to  walk  away,  and  to 
wander  about  in  restless  discontent  and  darkness  for  ever. 

The  original  inhabitants  of  Canada,  like  other  heathen, 
had  an  idea  of  a  supreme  Being,  whom  they  considered  as 
the  creator  and  governor  of  the  world.  It  is  said  that  most 
of  the  nations  which  speak  the  Algonquin  language,  give 
this  being  the  appellation  of  the  Great  Hare,  but  some  call 


516  PAGANS    OP    NORTH    AMERICA. 

him  Micbabou,  and  others  Atahocan.  They  believe  that 
he  was  born  upon  the  waters,  together  with  his  whole  court, 
who  were  composed  of  four-footed  animals,  like  himself; 
that  he  formed  the  earth  of  a  grain  of  sand  taken  from  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean ;  and  that  he  created  men  of  the  bodies 
of  dead  animals.  Some  mention  a  god  of  the  waters,  who 
opposed  the  designs  of  the  Great  Hare,  who  is  called  the 
great  Tiger.  They  have  a  third  called  Matcomek,  whom 
they  invoke  in  the  winter  season. 

According  to  the  Iroquois,  in  the  third  generation  there 
came  a  deluge,  in  which  not  a  soul  was  saved ;  so  that,  in 
order  to   repeople   the   earth,   it   was   necessary  to   change 
beasts  into  men.     Besides  the  first  Being,  or  Great  Spirit, 
they  hold   an   infinite   number   of  genii,   or   inferior  spirits, 
both  good  and  evil,  who  have  each  their  peculiar  form  of 
worship.      They  ascribe  to  these  beings  a  kind  of  immen- 
sity and  omnipresence,  and  constantly  invoke  them  as  the 
guardians  of  mankind;    and   they   only   address  themselves 
to  the  evil  genii,  to  beg  of  them  to  do  them  no  hurt.     They 
believe   in   the   immortality   of  the   soul,    and   say   that  the 
region  of  their  everlasting  abode  lies  so  far  westward,  that 
the  souls  are  several  months  in  arriving  at  it,  and  have  vast 
difficulties  to  surmount.     The  happiness   that  they  hope  to 
enjoy  is  not  believed  to  be  the  recompense  of  virtue  only, 
but  to  have  been  a  good  hunter,  brave  in  war,  &c.,  are  the 
chief  merits  which  entitle  them  to  their  paradise :   this  they 
and  other  American  natives  describe  as  a  delightful  country, 
blessed  with   perpetual   spring,    whose   forests   abound   with 
game,   whose  rivers  swarm  with  fish,  where  famine  is  never 
felt,  but  uninterrupted  plenty  shall  be  enjoyed  without  labor 
or  fatigue. 

The  Indians  of  Virginia  gave  the  names  of  Okee,  Qui- 
occos,  or  Kiwasa,  to  the  idol  which  they  worshipped. 
These  names  might  possibly  be  so  many  epithets,  which 


PAGANS    OF    NORTH     AMERICA,  517 

they  varied  according  to  the  several  functions  they  as 
cribed  to  this  deity,  or  the  different  notions  they  might 
form  to  themselves  of  it  in  their  religious  exercises  and 
common  discourses.  Moreover,  they  were  of  opinion  that 
this  idol  is  not  one  sole  being,  but  that  there  were  many 
more  of  the  same  nature,  besides  the  tutelary  gods.  They 
gave  the  general  name  of  Quioccos  to  all  these  genii,  or 
beings,  so  that  the  name  of  Kiwasa  might  be  particularly 
applied  to  the  idol  in  question. 

These  savages  consecrated  chapels  and  oratories  to  this 
deity,  in  which  the  idol  was  often  represented  under  a 
variety  of  shapes.  They  even  kept  some  of  these  in  the 
most  retired  part  of  their  houses,  to  whom  they  communi- 
cated their  affairs,  and  consulted  them  upon  occasion.  In 
this  case  they  made  use  of  them  in  the  quality  of  tutelary 
gods,  from  whom  they  supposed  they  received  blessings  on 
their  families. 

The  sacerdotal  vestment  of  their  priests  was  like  a 
woman's  petticoat  plaited,  which  they  put  about  their  necks, 
and  tied  over  their  right  shoulder ;  but  they  always  kept 
one  arm  out  to  use  it  as  the  occasion  required.  This  cloak 
was  made  round  at  the  bottom,  and  descended  no  lower 
than  the  middle  of  the  thigh ;  it  was  made  of  soft,  well- 
dressed  skins,  with  the  hair  outwards. 

These  priests  shaved  their  heads  close,  the  crown  ex- 
cepted,  where  they  left  only  a  little  tuft,  that  reached  from 
the  top  of  the  forehead  to  the  nape  of  the  neck,  and  even 
on  the  top  of  the  forehead.  They  here  left  a  border  of 
hair,  which,  whether  it  was  owing  to  nature,  or  the  stiff 
ness  contracted  by  the  fat  and  colors  with  which  they 
daubed  themselves,  bristled  up,  and  came  forward  like  the 
corner  of  a  square  cap. 

The  Virginians  had  a  great  veneration  for  their  priests ; 
and  the  latter  endeavored  to  procure  it  by  daubing  them- 
44 


o!8      PAGANS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

selves  all  over  in  a  very  frightful  manner ;  dressing  them- 
selves in  a  very  odd  habit,  and  tricking  up  their  hair  after 
a  very  whimsical  manner.  Everything  they  said  was  con- 
sidered as  an  oracle,  and  made  a  strong  impression  on  the 
minds  of  the  people ;  they  often  withdrew  from  society, 
and  lived  in  woods  or  in  huts,  far  removed  from  any  habi- 
tation. They  were  difficult  of  access;  and  did  not  give 
themselves  any  trouble  about  provisions,  because  care  waa 
always  taken  to  set  food  for  them  near  their  habitations 
They  were  always  addressed  in  cases  of  great  necessity. 
They  also  acted  in  the  quality  of  physicians,  because  of 
the  great  knowledge  they  were  supposed  to  have  of  nature. 
In  fine,  peace  or  war  was  determined  by  their  voice,  nor 
was  anything  of  importance  undertaken  without  first  con- 
sulting them. 

They  had  not  any  stated  times  nor  fixed  days  on  which 
they  celebrated  their  festivals,  but  they  regulated  them 
only  by  the  different  seasons  of  the  year.  As,  for  instance, 
they  celebrated  one  day  on  the  arrival  of  their  wild  birds, 
another  upon  the  return  of  the  hunting  season,  and  for  the 
maturity  of  their  fruits ;  but  the  greatest  festival  of  all 
was  at  harvest  time.  They  then  spent  several  days  in 
diverting  themselves,  and  enjoyed  most  of  their  amuse- 
ments, such  as  martial  dances  and  heroic  songs. 

After  their  return  from  war,  or  escaping  some  danger, 
they  lighted  fires  and  made  merry  about  them,  each  having 
his  gourd-bottle  or  his  little  bell  in  his  hand.  Men,  women, 
and  children  often  danced  in  a  confused  manner  about 
,hese  fires.  Their  devotions  in  general  consisted  only  of 
acclamations  of  joy,  mixed  with  dances  and  songs;  except 
in  seasons  of  sorrow  and  affliction,  when  they  were  changed 
into  bowlings.  The  priests  presided  at  this  solemnity, 
dressed  in  their  sacerdotal  ornaments,  part  of  which  were 
the  gourd-bottle,  the  petticoat  above  mentioned,  and  the 


PAGANS    OF    MEXICO.  519 

serpents'  or  weasels'  skins,  the  tails  of  which  were  dexter- 
ously tied  upon  their  heads  like  a  tiara  or  triple-crown. 
These  priests  hegan  the  song,  and  always  opened  the  reli- 
gious exercise,  to  which  they  often  added  incantations,  part 
of  the  mysteries  of  which  were  comprehended  in  the  songs 
above  mentioned.  The  noise,  the  gestures,  the  wry  faces, 
in  a  word,  everything,  contributed  to  render  these  incanta- 
tions terrible. 


PAGANS    OF    MEXICO 

THE  deities  of  the  ancient  Mexicans  are  said  to  have 
exceeded  two  thousand,  who  had  their  respective  temples, 
ceremonies,  and  sacrifices.  There  was  hardly  a  street 
without  its  tutelary  divinity,  nor  was  there  scarcely  a  dis- 
ease which  had  not  its  peculiar  altar,  to  which  the  Mexicans 
flocked  in  order  to  be  healed.  Their  principal  deity  was 
Vitzliputzli)  whom  they  considered  the  sovereign  lord  of 
all  things,  and  creator  of  heaven  and  earth.  The  greatest 
god  after  Vitzliputzli  was  the  Sun.  Another  of  their 
divinities  was  Tlaloch,  whom  some  writers  confound  with 
Tescalipuca.  But  these  were  considered  brothers,  of  equal 
strength,  ana  so  similar  in  disposition,  that  the  sovereign 
power  of  war  was  divided  between  them.  Tescalipuca  was, 
however,  more  appropriately  the  god  of  penance,  whom 
the  Mexicans  invoked  in  seasons  of  adversity.  The  Mer~ 
cury  and  Plutus  of  the  Mexicans,  the  former  of  whom 
was  sometimes  called  Quitzalcoalt,  was  represented  under 
a  human  shape,  except  that  it  had  the  head  of  a  bird,  with 
a  painted  paper  mitre  upon  its  head,  and  a  scythe  in  its 
hand.  The  body  of  it  was  covered  with  jewels  of  extra- 
ordinary value.  Besides  the  foregoing,  the  Mexicans 


520  PAGANS    OP    MEXICO. 

worshipped  various  other  deities,  among  whom  we  shall 
mention  only  Tozi,  a  beautiful  woman,  for  whom,  at  her 
death,  Vitzliputzli  procured  divine  honors.  Nearly  all 
their  divinities  were  clothed  with  terror,  and  delighted  in 
vengeance.  The  figures  of  serpents,  of  tigers,  and  of  other 
destructive  animals,  decorated  their  temples.  Fasts,  mor- 
tifications, and  penances,  all  rigid,  and  many  of  them 
excruciating  to  an  extreme  degree,  were  the  means  which 
they  employed  to  appease  the  wrath  of  the  gods.  But  of 
all  offerings,  human  sacrifices  were  deemed  the  most  ac- 
ceptable. At  the  dedication  of  the  great  temple  at 
Mexico,  it  is  reported  there  were  60,000  or  70,000  human 
sacrifices.  The  usual  amount,  of  them  was  about  20,000 

When  the  bloody  sacrifices  of  the  Mexicans  took  place, 
the  victims  about  to  be  slain  were  assembled  at  a  charnal- 
house  on  a  terrace.  A  priest,  holding  in  his  hand  an  idol 
made  of  wheat-maize  and  honey,  drew  near  to  these  un- 
happy wretches,  and  presenting  it  to  each  of  them^  cried 
out  at  the  same  time,  "  There  is  your  god  !" 

This  done,  they  withdrew,  going  off  on  the  other  side 
of  the  terrace,  when  the  victims  were  immediately  brought 
upon  it,  being  the  place  appointed  for  the  sacrifice.  Six 
ministers  of  the  idol  here  slaughtered  these  victims ;  and 
having  torn  out  their  hearts,  they  threw  the  bodies  down 
the  staircase,  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  terrace. 

They  never  sacrificed  less  than  forty  of  these  victims  at 
a  time ;  and  those  nations  who  either  bordered  on,  or  were 
tributary  to,  the  Mexicans,  imitated  them  in  this  bloody 
worship. 

Another  religious  ceremony,  which  indeed  does  not  seem 
so  barbarous  as  the  former,  was  the  duel  of  the  victim,  if 
we  may  give  this  name  to  the  liberty  he  was  allowed  of 
defending  himself  against  the  priest  who  was  to  sacrifice 
him.  The  captive,  whose  feet  were  tied  to  a  stone,  parried 


PAGANS    OP    MEXICO.  521 

the  instrument  with  which  the  priest  struck  at  him,  and 
even  attacked  him  in  his  turn.  If  he  had  the  good  fortune 
to  conquer  the  priest,  he  was  released,  and  considered  as 
a  hrave  man  ;  but  if  the  priest  came  off  conqueror,  he  first 
killed  him,  then  stripped  off  his  skin,  and  had  his  limbs 
dressed  and  served  up  at  one  of  those  meals  called  'by 
them  their  religious  meals. 

The  high  priest  was  called  Tapizlin  in  the  Mexican  lan- 
guage. It  is  pretended  that  his  dignity  was  equal  to  that 
of  the  pope.  He  wore  on  his  head  a  crown  of  beautiful 
feathers  of  various  colors,  with  golden  pendants,  enriched 
with  emeralds,  at  his  ears,  and  a  small  blue  tube,  similar 
to  that  of  the  god  of  penance,  ran  through  his  lip.  He 
was  clothed  in  a  scarlet  robe,  or  rather  mantle.  The 
vestments  of  their  priests  were  frequently  changed  accord- 
ing to  the  different  seasons  or  festivals. 

The  priesthood  of  Vitzliputzli  was  hereditary,  and  that 
of  the  other  gods  elective.  Children  were  often  destined 
from  their  most  tender  years  to  the  service  of  idols,  and 
officiated  as  clerks,  and  singing  boys,  when  but  mere 
striplings.  The  priests  used  to  incense  four  times  every 
day  the  god,  whose  ministers  they  were ;  but  at  midnight, 
the  principal  ministers  of  the  temple  rose  to  perform  the 
nocturnal  office,  viz.,  to  sound  a  trumpet  and  horn  for  a 
considerable  time,  and  to  play  on  certain  instruments, 
accompanied  with  voices,  which  together  celebrated  the 
praises  of  the  idol.  After  this,  the  priest,  whose  turn  it 
\vas,  took  the  thurible,  saluted  the  idol,  and  incensed  it, 
himself  being  clothed  in  a  black  mantle.  In  fine,  after 
the  incensing  was  over,  they  all  went  together  into  a 
chapel,  where  they  practised  all  those  rigorous  penances 
which  have  been  already  described. 

The  Mexicans,  at  the  end  of  every  month,  which  among 
them  consisted  of  twenty  days,  used  to  observe  a  solemn 

44* 


522  PAGANS  or  MEXICO. 

day  of  devotion,  mixed  with  rejoicings.  They  then  sacri- 
ficed some  captives,  and  ran  up  and  down  the  streets 
clothed  in  the  skins  of  those  miserable  victims  that  had 
been  just  flayed.  They  danced,  they  sang,  they  collected 
alms  for  the  priests,  the  giving  of  which  among  them,  as 
in  other  places,  was  looked  upon  as  an  effect  of  real  piety. 
The  great  festival  of  Vitzliputzli  was  celebrated  in  the 
month  of  May,  two  days  before  which,  the  nuns  used  t 
make  a  figure  of  maize  and  honey,  representing  that  god. 
Then  having  dressed  it  in  as  magnificent  a  manner  as 
possible,  they  seated  it  on  an  azure  throne,  which  was 
supported  by  a  kind  of  shaft.  The  nuns,  who  on  that 
festival  used  to  call  themselves  the  sisters  of  Vitzliputzli, 
carried  it  in  procession  on  their  shoulders,  to  the  area 
before  the  temple,  where  the  young  monks  before  cited 
received  the  idol,  and,  after  having  paid  homage  to  it, 
carried  it  also  on  their  shoulders  to  the  steps  of  the 
sanctuary. 

The  festival  of  Tescalipuca  was  celebrated  the  nineteenth 
of  the  same  month,  when  the  priests  granted  the  people  a 
remission  of  their  sins.  At  the  same  time  they  sacrifice  a 
captive,  which  we  may  almost  consider  as  an  imperfect 
image  of  the  death  which  our  blessed  Saviour  suffered  for 
the  redemption  of  mankind. 

The  Mexicans  used  to  celebrate  a  jubilee  every  four 
years,  which  was  nothing  more  than  the  feast  of  penance, 
such  as  we  have  already  described,  except  that  it  was  more 
solemn,  there  being  at  that  time  a  more  general  and 
plenary  remission  of  sins.  We  are  assured  that  the  Mexi- 
cans sacrificed  many  human  victims  at  this  season.  And 
the  youth  used  to  make  a  kind  of  challenge,  who  should 
first,  and  in  one  breath,  get  to  the  top  of  the  temple.  This 
enterprise  was  a  very  difficult  one,  since  it  gained  applause 
to  all  those  who  had  the  glory  of  coming  first  to  the  goal, 


PAGANS    OF    MEXICO.  523 

not  to  mention  that  they  were  distinguished  from  the  rest 
of  their  countrymen,  and,  moreover,  had  the  privilege  of 
carrying  off  the  sacred  viands,  of  which  they  made  the 
same  use  as  Catholics  do  of  relics. 

Forty  days  before  the  feast  of  Quitzalcoalt,  the  mer- 
chants purchased  a  slave  of  a  very  fine  shape,  who,  during 
that  time,  represented  the  deity  to  whom  he  was  to  he 
sacrificed  as  a  victim  on  the  day  of  the  festival ;  hut  they 
first  washed  him  in  the  lake  of  the  gods,  which  was  the 
name  they  gave  to  the  water  which  fitted  him  for  the  fatal 
apotheosis  which  ended  with  his  death. 

Marriage  was  solemnized  by  the  authority  of  the  priests, 
and  a  public  instrument  was  drawn  up,  in  which  were  men- 
tioned the  particulars  of  the  wife's  fortune,  which  the  hus- 
band was  obliged  to  return  in  case  of  separation.  After 
their  having  agreed  upon  the  articles,  the  couple  went  t& 
the  temple,  where  one  of  the  sacrificing  priests  examined 
their  resolutions  by  certain  precise  questions  appointed  for 
that  purpose.  He  afterwards  took  up  the  husband's  mantle 
and  the  woman's  veil,  and  with  one  of  his  hands  tied  them 
together  at  one  corner,  to  signify  the  inward  tie  of  the 
wills.  They  then  returned  to  their  house,  bound  in  this 
manner,  accompanied  by  the  sacrificing  priest.  Then  they 
went  and  visited  the  hearth  or  fire,  which  they  looked  upon 
as  the  mediator  of  all  disputes  between  man  and  wife. 
They  used  to  go  seven  times  round  it,  successively,  the 
sacrificing  priest  walking  before;  after  which  ceremony 
they  both  sat  down,  in  order  to  be  equally  warmed  by  the 
heat  of  the  fire,  which  gave  the  perfection  to  marriage. 

Burials  and  all  funeral  rites  were  regulated  by  their 
priests.  They  generally  buried  their  dead  in  their  gardens 
or  houses,  and  commonly  chose  the  courtyard  for  that  pur- 
pose ;  they  sometimes  buried  them  in  those  places  where 
they  sacrificed  to  the  idols.  In  fine,  they  frequently  burned 


524  PAGANS    OF    MEXICO. 

them,  after  which  they  hurled  their  ashes  in  the  temples,  to- 
gether with  their  movables,  their  utensils,  and  all  they 
thought  might  be  useful  to  them  in  the  next  world.  They 
used  to  sing  at  funerals,  and  even  made  feasts  on  those 
occasions,  which  custom,  how  ridiculous  soever  it  may  be, 
Borne  Christian  nations  have  not  been  able  to  persuade 
themselves  to  lay  aside.  Above  all,  they  buried  their  great 
lords  in  a  very  magnificent  manner,  and  used  to  carry 
their  bodies  with  great  pomp  and  a  numerous  train  into 
the  temples.  The  priests  walked  first  with  their  pans  of 
copal,  singing  funeral  hymns  with  a  melancholy  tone, 
accompanied  with  the  hoarse  and  mournful  sound  of  flutes. 
They  lifted  the  body  several  times  on  high,  while  they  were 
sacrificing  those  who  were  appointed  to  serve  the  illustrious 
dead.  The  domestics  were  put  to  death  to  keep  their  mas- 
ters company.  It  was  a  testimony  of  great  affection,  but 
very  common  among  the  lawful  wives,  to  solemnize,  by  their 
deaths,  the  funerals  of  their  husbands.  They  buried  a  great 
quantity  of  gold  and  silver  with  the  deceased  for  the  ex- 
pense of  his  journey,  which  they  imagined  was  long  and 
troublesome.  The  common  people  imitated  the  grandees 
in  proportion  to  their  substance.  The  friends  of  the  de- 
ceased came  arid  made  presents  to  him,  and  talked  to  him 
as  if  he  were  still  living  ;  the  same  ceremonies  were  prac- 
tised whether  they  burned  or  buried  the  dead.  We  must 
not  omit  to  state  that  they  carried  with  them  the  achieve- 
ments and  trophies  of  the  deceased,  in  case  he  were  a  man 
of  quality,  and  that  the  priest  who  read  the  funeral  service 
was  dressed  so  as  to  set  forth  the  glory  of  the  idol  whom 
the  nobleman  represented.  The  funeral  lasted  ten  days. 

The  city  of  Mexico  is  said  to  have  contained  near'.y  2000 
email  temples,  and  360  which  were  adorned  with  steeples. 
The  whole  empire  of  Mexico  contained  about  40,000  tem- 
ples, endowed  with  very  considerable  revenues  For  the 


P'AQANS    OF    PERU.  525 

service  in  the  grand  temple  of  Mexico  itself,  above  5000 
priests  were  appointed ;  and  the  number  in  the  whole  em- 
pire is  said  to  have  amounted  to  nearly  a  million.  The 
•whole  priesthood,  excepting  that  of  the  conquered  nations, 
was  governed  by  two  high  priests,  who  were  also  the  oracles 
of  the  kings.  Besides  the  service  in  the  temple,  their  clergy 
were  to  instruct  the  youth,  to  compose  the  calendars,  anc1 
to  paint  the  mythological  pictures.  The  Mexicans  had  also 
priestesses,  but  they  were  not  allowed  to  offer  up  sacrifices. 
They  likewise  had  monastic  orders,  especially  one,  into 
Irhich  no  person  was  admitted  under  sixty  years  of  age. 


PAGANS  OF  PERU. 

THE  Peruvians,  previously  to  being  governed  by  their 
Incas,  worshipped  a  great  number  of  gods,  or  rather  genii. 
There  was  no  nation,  family,  city,  street,  or  even  house, 
but  had  its  peculiar  gods ;  and  for  this  particular  reason, 
that  they  thought  none  but  the  god  to  whom  they  imme- 
diately devoted  themselves  was  able  to  assist  them  in  time 
of  need.  They  worshipped  herbs,  plants,  flowers,  trees, 
mountains,  caves,  beasts,  adders  ;  in  fine,  everything  that 
appeared  wonderful  in  their  eyes  was  thought  worthy  of 
adoration. 

These  ancient  idolaters  of  Peru  offered  not  only  the  fruits 
of  the  earth  and  animals  to  these  gods,  but  also  their  cap- 
tives, like  the  rest  of  the  Americans.  It  was  their  custom 
to  sacrifice  their  own  children,  whenever  there  was  a  scarcity 
of  victims. 

Some  other  idolaters  offered  their  own  blood  to  their 
deities,  which  they  drew  from  their  arms  and  thighs,  accord- 


526  PAGANS    OF    PERU. 

ing  as  the  sacrifice  was  more  or  less  solemn  ;  and  they  even 
used,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  to  bleed  themselves  at 
the  tips  of  their  nostrils,  or  between  the  eyebrows. 

Such  was  the  state  of  idolatry  all  over  Peru,  when  the 
Inca  Mancocapac,  the  lawgiver  of  that  vast  empire,  taught 
the  savages  the  worship  of  the  Sun.  From  this  time,  sacri- 
fices of  various  kinds  of  animals  were  offered  in  honor  of 
the  sun,  and  also  cocoa,  corn,  rich  clothes,  and  a  liquor 
made  of  water  and  maize.  They  always  presented  the  last 
offering  to  the  sun  in  the  following  manner :  When  they 
were  very  thirsty,  the  first  satisfied  their  hunger,  and  after- 
wards dipped  the  tip  of  their  finger  in  the  vessel  into  which 
the  liquor  was  poured ;  this  being  done,  they  lifted  up  their 
eyes  to  heaven  in  a  very  submissive  manner ;  shook  that 
finger  on  which  the  drop  hung,  and  offered  it  to  the  sun  as 
an  acknowledgment  for  his  goodness  in  providing  drink 
for  them.  At  the  same  time  they  gave  two  or  three  kisses 
to  the  air.  This  oblation  being  made,  they  all  drank  as 
they  thought  proper. 

Every  time  they  entered  their  temples,  the  chief  man  in 
the  company  laid  his  hand  on  one  of  his  eyebrows,  and 
whether  he  tore  off  ony  of  the  hairs  or  not,  he  blew  it  into 
the  air  before  the  idol,  as  a  mark  of  its  being  an  oblation. 
They  paid  the  same  adoration  to  trees,  and  to  all  those  things 
which  a  divine  virtue  had  made  sacred  and  religious. 


ROMAN    CATHOLICS.  527 


ROMAN  CATHOLICS. 

ALTHOUGH,  in  ordinary  language,  the  name  Roman 
Catholic  Church  is  often  used  to  designate  the  ruling  au- 
thority or  power  in  the  Catholic  religion,  as  if  distinct  from 
the  members  of  that  communion,  yet  the  definition  which 
Catholics  give  of  the  Church  is  such  as  to  comprehend  the 
entire  body  of  its  members  as  well  as  its  rulers,  the  flock 
as  much  as  the  shepherds.  Thus  we  hear  of  Catholics 
being  under  the  dominion  of  their  Church,  or  obliged  to 
obey  it,  as  though  it  were  something  distinct  from  them- 
selves, or  as  if  they  were  not  a  part  of  their  Church.  This 
preliminary  remark  is  made  to  explain  a  certain  vagueness 
of  expression,  which  often  leads  to  misapprehension,  and 
serves  as  the  basis  of  incorrect  ideas  regarding  the  pecu- 
liar doctrines  of  that  Church — a  vagueness  similar  to  what 
is  frequent  in  writing  and  speaking  on  jurisprudence  ;  as, 
for  example,  where  the  government  of  a  country  is  consi- 
dered as  a  power  distinct  and  almost  at  variance  with  the 
nation  which  it  rules,  and  not  an  integral  part  thereof. 

The  Catholic  Church,  therefore,  is  defined  to  be  the 
community  of  the  faithful  united  to  their  lawful  pastors, 
in  communion  with  the  see  of  Rome  or  with  the  Pope,  the 
successor  of  St.  Peter,  and  vicar  of  Christ  on  earth. 

Simply  developing  the  terms  of  this  definition,  we  will 
give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  constitution  or  fundamental  sys- 
tem of  this  Church,  under  the  heads  of  its  government, 
its  laws,  and  its  vital  or  constitutive  principle. 

I.  The  government  of  the  Catholic  Church  may  be  con- 
sidered monarchical,  inasmuch  as  the  Pope  is  held  in  it  to 
be  the  ruler  over  the  entire  Church,  and  the  most  distant 


f)"28  ROMAN    CATHOLICS. 

bishop  of  the  Catholic  Church  holds  his  appointment  from 
him,  and  receives  from  him  his  authority.  No  bishop  can 
be  considered  lawfully  consecrated  without  his  approbation. 
The  dignity  or  office  of  Pope  is  inherent  in  the  occupant 
of  the  see  of  Rome,  because  the  supremacy  over  the  Church 
is  believed  to  be  held  in  virtue  of  a  commission  given  to 
St.  Peter,  not  as  his  own  personal  prerogative,  but  as  a  part 
of  the  constitution  of  the  Church,  for  its  advantage,  and 
therefore  intended  to  descend  to  his  successors  —  as  the 
episcopal  power  did  from  the  apostles  to  those  who  suc- 
ceeded them  in  their  respective  sees. 

The  election  of  the  Pope,  therefore,  devolves  upon  the 
clergy  of  Rome,  as  being  their  bishop ;  and  it  is  confided 
to  the  college  of  cardinals,  who,  bearing  the  titles  of  the 
eldest  churches  in  that  city,  represent  its  clergy,  and  form 
their  chapter  or  electoral  body.  The  meeting  or  chapter 
formed  for  this  purpose  alone  is  called  a  conclave.  The 
cardinals  are  in  their  turn  appointed  by  the  Pope,  and 
compose  the  executive  council  of  the  Church.  They  pre- 
side over  the  various  departments  of  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment, and  are  divided  into  boards  or  congregations,  as 
they  are  called,  for  the  transaction  of  business  from  all 
parts  of  the  world ;  but  every  decision  is  subject  to  the 
Pope's  revision,  and  has  no  value  except  from  his  appro- 
bation. 

On  some  occasions  they  are  all  summoned  together  to 
meet  the  Pope  on  affairs  of  higher  importance,  as  for  the 
nomination  of  bishops,  or  the  admission  of  new  members 
into  their  body;  and  then  the  assembly  is  called  a  consis- 
tory. The  full  number  of  cardinals  is  seventy-two,  but 
there  are  always  some  hats  left  vacant. 

The  Catholic  Church  being  essentially  episcopal,  is  go- 
verned by  bishops,  who  are  of  two  sorts,  bishops  in  ordi- 
nary, and  vicars  apostolic.  By  the  first  are  meant  titular 


ROMAN    CATHOLICS. 

bishops,  or  such  as  bear  the  name  of  the  see  over  which 
they  rule  ;  as  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  or  of  Dublin  ;  the 
Bishop  of  Cambray  or  New  Orleans.  The  manner  of  ap- 
pointing such  bishops  varies  considerably.  Where  they 
arc  unshackled  by  the  government,  the  clergy  of  the  dio- 
cese meet  in  chapter,  according  to  old  forms,  and  having 
selected  three  names,  forward  them  to  the  Holy  See,  where 
one  is  chosen  for  promotion.  This  is  the  case  in  Ireland, 
Belgium,  and  perhaps  in  the  free  states  of  America.  In 
most  countries,  however,  the  election  of  bishops  ia  regu- 
lated by  concordat;  that  is,  a  special  agreement  between 
the  Pope  and  the  civil  government.  The  presentation  is 
generally  vested  in  the  crown ;  but  the  appointment  must 
necessarily  emanate  from  the  Pope. 

The  powers  of  bishops,  and  the  manner  of  exercising 
their  authority,  are  regulated  by  the  canon  law ;  their 
jurisdiction  on  every  point  is  clear  and  definite,  and  leaves 
no  room  for  arbitrary  enactments  or  oppressive  measures. 
Yet  it  is  of  such  a  character  as,  generally  considered,  can 
perfectly  control  the  inferior  orders  of  clergy,  and  secure 
them  to  the  discharge  of  their  duty.  In  most  Catholic 
countries  there  is  a  certain  degree  of  civil  jurisdiction  al- 
lowed to  the  bishops,  with  judicial  powers,  in  matters  of  a 
mixed  character ;  as  in  cases  appertaining  to  marriages, 
where  a  distinction  between  civil  and  ecclesiastical  mar- 
riage has  not  been  drawn  by  the  legislature.  Some  of- 
fences connected  with  religion,  as  blasphemy  or  domestic 
immorality,  are  likewise  brought  under  their  cognizance. 

Where  the  succession  of  the  Catholic  hierarchy  has  been 
interrupted,  as  in  England,  or  never  been  established,  as 
in  Australasia  or  some  parts  of  India,  the  bishops  who 
superintend  the  Catholic  Church,  and  represent  the  papal 
authority,  are  known  by  the  name  of  vicars  apostolic.  A 
vicar  apostolic  is  not  necessarily  a  bishop — an  instance  of 

45  21 


ROMAN     CATHOLICS. 

which  w«  have  now  at  Calcutta,  where  the  vicar  apostolic 
is  a  simple  priest.  Generally,  however,  he  receives  epis- 
copal consecration ;  and  as,  from  local  circumstances,  it  is 
not  thought  expedient  that  he  should  bear  the  title  of  the 
gee  which  he  administers,  he  is  appointed  with  the  title  of 
an  ancient  bishopric  now  in  the  hands  of  infidels,  and  thu8 
is  called  a  bishop  in  partibus  infidelium,  though  the  last 
word  is  often  omitted  in  ordinary  language.  A  vicar  apos- 
tolic, being  generally  situated  where  the  provisions  of  the 
canon  law  cannot  be  fully  observed,  is  guided  by  particular 
instructions,  by  precedents  and  consuetude,  to  all  which 
the  uniformity  of  discipline  through  the  Catholic  Church 
gives  stability  and  security.  Thus  the  vicars  apostolic, 
who  rule  over  the  four  episcopal  districts  of  England,  have 
their  code  in  the  admirable  constitution  of  Pope  Benedict 
XIV.,  beginning  with  the  words  Apostolicum  ministerium. 
The  powers  of  a  vicar  apostolic  are  necessarily  more  ex- 
tended than  those  of  ordinary  bishops,  and  are  ampler  in 
proportion  to  the  difficulty  of  keeping  up  a  close  commu 
nication  with  Rome.  Thus,  many  cases  of  dispensation  in 
marriage  which  a  continental  bishop  must  send  to  the 
Holy  See,  may  be  provided  for  by  an  English  or  American 
vicar  apostolic ;  and  other  similar  matters,  for  which  these 
must  consult  it,  could  at  once  be  granted  by  the  ecclesi- 
astical superiors  of  the  Mauritius  or  of  China.  The  nomi- 
nation of  vicars  apostolic  is  solely  with  the  Pope. 

The  inferior  clergy,  considered  in  reference  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Church,  consists  mainly  of  the  parochial 
clergy,  or  those  who  supply  their  place.  In  all  countries 
possessing  a  hierarchy,  the  country  is  divided  into  parishes, 
each  provided  with  a  parochus  or  curate,*  corresponding 


*  To  avoid  mistakes,  we  may  observe  that  the  parish  priest  in  Trfr 
'*n<l  I'orreapondfl  t<>  the  cur6  in  France   the  curato  (or  in  the  ooun- 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC  8.  531 

to  the  rector  or  vicar  of  the  English  Established  Cburch. 
The  appointment  to  a  parish  is  vested  in  the  bishop,  who 
has  no  power  to  remove  again  at  will,  or  for  any  cause 
except  a  canonical  offence  juridically  proved.  The  rf^ht  of 
presentation  by  lay  patrons  is,  however,  in  particular  instances, 
fully  respected.  In  Italy  the  parish  priests  are  g-raerally 
chosen  by  competition ;  as,  upon  a  vacancy,  a  daj  is  ap- 
pointed on  which  the  testimonials  of  the  different  cs-odidates 
are  compared,  and  they  themselves  personally  examined  be- 
fore the  bishop  in  theology,  the  exposition  of  Scripture,  snd 
extemporaneous  preaching ;  and  whoever  is  pronounced,  by 
ballot,  superior  to  the  rest,  is  chosen. 

Under  an  apostolic  vicariate,  the  clergy  corresponding  to 
the  parochial  clergy  generally  bear  the  title  of  apostolic  mis~ 
sionaries,  and  have  missions  or  local  districts,  with  variable 
limits,  placed  under  their  care ;  but  are  dependent  upou  tha 
will  of  their  ecclesiastical  superiors. 

Besides  the  parochial  clergy,  there  is  a  considerable 
body  of  ecclesiastics,  who  do  not  enter  directly  into  the 
governing  part  of  the  Church,  although  they  help  to  dis- 
charge some  of  its  most  important  functions.  A  great 
number  of  secular  clergy  are  devoted  to  the  conduct  of 
education,  either  in  universities  or  seminaries ;  many  oc- 
cupy themselves  exclusively  with  the  pulpit,  others  with 
instructing  the  poor,  or  attending  charitable  institutions. 
A  certain  number  also  fill  prebends,  or  attend  to  the  daily 
service  of  cathedrals,  etc. ;  for  in  the  Catholic  Church, 
pluralities,  where  the  cure  of  souls  exists,  are  strictly  pro- 
hibited, and  consequently  a  distinct  body  of  clergy  from 
those  engaged  in  parochial  duties,  or  holding  rectories, 
etc.,  is  necessary  for  those  duties.  Besides  this  auxiliary 

try.  arciprete)  of  Italy,  and  the  cura  of  Spain.  The  curate  in  Ire- 
land, as  in  the  church  of  England,  is  equivalent  to  the  vicaire  of 
France  and  the  sotto-curato  of  Italy. 


532  ROMAN    CATHOLICS. 

force,  the  regular  clergy,  or  monastic  orders,  take  upon 
them  manv  of  these  functions.  The  clergy  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church  in  the  west  are  bound  by  a  vow  of  celibacy,  not 
formally  made,  but  implied  in  their  ordination  as  sub-dea- 
cons. This  obligation  of  celibacy  is  only  reckoned  among 
the  disciplinary  enactments  of  the  Church.  The  clergy 
of  that  portion  of  the  Greek  and  Armenian  church  which 
is  united  in  communion  with  the  see  of  Rome,  may  be  mar- 
riod ;  that  is,  may  receive  orders  if  married,  but  are  not 
allowed  to  marry  after  having  taken  orders.  A  similar 
discipline,  if  thought  expedient  by  the  Church,  might  be 
introduced  into  the  west. 

The  only  point  concerning  the  government  of  the  Catho- 
!>-;  Church  which  remains  to  be  mentioned  is  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  exercised.  The  most  solemn  tribunal  is  a 
general  council,  that  is,  an  assembly  of  all  the  bishops  of 
tne  Church,  who  may  attend  either  in  person  or  by  deputy, 
under  the  presidency  of  the  Pope  or  his  legates.  When 
once  a  decree  has  passed  such  an  assembly,  and  received 
the  approbation  of  the  Holy  See,  there  is  no  further  appeal. 
Distinction  must  be,  however,  made  between  doctrinal  and 
disciplinary  decrees ;  for  example,  when  in  the  council  of 
Trent  ii  was  decreed  to  be  the  doctrine  of  the  Church,  that 
marriage  is  indissoluble,  this  decree  is  considered  binding 
in  the  belief  and  on  the  conduct,  nor  can  its  acceptance  be 
refused  by  any  one  without  his  being  considered  rebellious 
to  the  Church.  But  when  it  is  ordered  that  marriages 
must  be  celebrated  only  in  presence  of  the  parish  priest, 
this  is  a  matter  of  discipline,  not  supposed  to  rest  on  the 
revelation  of  God,  but  dictated  by  prudence ;  and  conse- 
quently a  degree  of  toleration  is  allowed  regarding  the 
adoption  of  the  resolution  in  particular  dioceses.  It  ia 
only  wi;h  regard  to  such  decrees,  and  more  specifically  the 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC  S.  S'.JJ 

ane  we  have  mentioned,  that  the  council  of  Trent  is  sail 
to  have  been  received,  or  not,  in  different  countries. 

When  a  general  council  cannot  be  summoned,  or  when 
it  is  not  deemed  necessary,  the  general  government  of  the 
Church  is  conducted  by  the  Pope,  whose  decisions  in  mat- 
ters of  discipline  are  considered  paramount,  though  par- 
ticulur  sees  and  countries  claim  certain  special  privileges 
and  exemptions.  In  matters  of  faith  it  is  admitted  that 
if  he  issue  a  decree,  as  it  is  called,  ex  cathedrd,  or  as  head 
of  the  Church,  and  all  the  bishops  accept  it,  such  definition 
or  decree  is  binding  and  final.* 

The  discipline  or  reformation  of  smaller  divisions  is  per- 
formed by  provincial  or  diocesan  synods.  The  first  consist 
of  the  bishops  of  a  province  under  their  metropolitan  ;  the 
latter  of  the  parochial  and  other  clergy  under  the  superin 
tendence  of  the  bishop.  The  forms  to  be  observed  in  such 
assemblies,  the  subjects  which  may  be  discussed,  and  the 
extent  of  jurisdiction  which  maybe  assumed,  are  laid  down 
at  full  in  a  beautiful  work  of  the  learned  Benedict  XIV., 
entitled  "De  Synodo  Diocesana."  The  acts  and  decrees 
of  many  such  partial  synods  have  been  published,  and  are 
held  in  high  esteem  among  Catholics ;  indeed,  they  may 
be  recommended  as  beautiful  specimens  of  deliberative 
\\isdoin.  Such  are  the  decrees  of  the  various  synods  hold 
at  Milan  under  the  virtuous  and  amiable  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo. 

II.  The  laws  of  the  Catholic  Church  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes,  those  which  bind  the  interior,  and  those  which 

*  The  great  difference  between  the  Transalpine  and  Cisalpine 
divines,  as  they  are  termed,  is  whether  such  a  decree  has  its  force 
prior  to,  or  independent  of,  the  accession  of  the  body  of  bishops  t« 
it,  or  receives  its  sanction  and  binding  power  from  their  acceptance. 
Practically  there  is  little  or  no  difference  between  the  two  opinions; 
yet  this  slight  variety  forms  a  principal  groundwork  of  what  aw 
called  the  liberties  of  the  Gallicau  church. 
45* 


534  ROMAN    CATHOLICS. 

regulate  outward  conduct.  This  distinction,  which  corre- 
sponds to  that  above  made,  between  doctrinal  and  discipli- 
nary decrees,  may  appear  unusual,  as  the  term  laws  seems 
hardly  applicable  to  forms  of  thought  or  belief.  Still,  view- 
ing, as  we  have  done,  the  Catholic  Church  under  the  form 
of  an  organized  religious  society,  and  considering  that  it 
professes  to  be  divinely  authorized  to  exact  interior  assent 
to  all  that  it  teaches,  under  the  penalty  of  being  separated 
from  its  communion,  we  think  we  can  well  classify  under 
the  word  law  those  principles  and  doctrines  which  it  com- 
mands and  expects  all  its  members  to  profess. 

Catholics  often  complain  that  doctrines  are  laid  to  their 
charge  which  they  do  not  hold,  and  in  their  various  publi- 
cations protest  against  their  belief  being  assumed  upon  any 
but  authoritative  documents  ;  and  as  such  works  are  per- 
fectly accessible,  the  complaint  must  appear  reasonable  as 
well  as  just.  There  are  several  works  in  which  an  accurate 
account  is  given  of  what  Catholics  are  expected  to  believe, 
and  which  carefully  distinguish  between  those  points  on 
which  latitude  of  opinion  is  allowed,  and  such  as  have 
been  fully  and  decisively  decreed  by  the  supreme  authority 
of  the  Church.  Such  are  Veron's  "Regula  Fidei,"  or 
Rule  of  Faith,  a  work  lately  translated  into  English,  and 
Holden's  "Analysis  Fidei."  But  there  are  documents  of 
more  authority  than  these;  for  example,  the  "Declaration" 
set  forth  by  the  vicars  apostolic  or  bishops  in  England,  in 
1823,  often  republished  ;  and  still  more  the  "  Catechismus 
ad  Parochos,"  or  "  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent," 
translated  into  English  not  many  years  ago,  and  published 
in  Dublin.  A  perusal  of  such  works  as  these  will  satisfy 
those  who  are  desirous  of  full  and  accurate  information 
regarding  Catholic  tenets,  of  their  real  nature,  and  show 
that  the  popular  expositions  of  their  substance  and  char- 
acter are  generally  incorrect. 


ROMAN    CATHOLICS.  535 

Ths  formulary  of  faith,  which  persons  becoming  mem- 
bers of  the  Catholic  Church  are  expected  to  recite,  and 
which  is  sworn  to  upon  taking  any  degree,  or  being  ap- 
pointed to  a  chair  in  a  university,  is  the  creed  of  Pius 
TV.,  of  which  the  following  is  the  substance : 

The  preamble  runs  as  follows:  "I,  N.  N.,  with  a  firm 
faith  believe  and  profess  all  and  every  one  of  those  things 
which  are  contained  in  that  creed,  which  the  holy  Roman 
Church  maketh  use  of."  Then  follows  the  Nicene  creed. 

"  I  most  steadfastly  admit  and  embrace  apostolical  and 
ecclesiastical  traditions,  and  all  other  observances  and  con- 
stitutions of  the  same  Church. 

"  I  also  admit  the  Holy  Scriptures,  according  to  that 
sense  which  our  holy  mother  the  Church  has  held  and  does 
hold,  to  which  it  belongs  to  judge  of  the  true  sense  and 
interpretation  of  the  Scriptures ;  neither  will  I  ever  take 
and  interpret  them  otherwise  than  according  to  the  unani- 
mous consent  of  the  fathers. 

u  I  also  profess  that  there  are  truly  and  properly  seven 
sacraments  of  the  new  law,  instituted  by  Jesus  Christ  our 
Lord,  and  necessary  for  the  salvation  of  mankind,  though 
not  all  for  every  one,  to  wit :  baptism,  confirmation,  the 
eucharist,  penance,*  extreme  unction,  holy  orders, f  and 
matrimony;  and  that  they  confer  grace;  and  that  of  these, 
baptism,  confirmation,  and  orders  cannot  be  reiterated  with- 

*  Under  penance  is  included  confession ;  as  the  Catholic  sacra- 
ment of  penance  consists  of  three  parts:  contrition  or  sorrow,  con- 
fession, and  satisfaction. 

f  The  clerical  orders  of  the  Catholic  Church  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  sacred  and  minor  orders.  The  first  consists  of  subdeacons, 
deacons,  and  priests,  who  are  bound  to  celibacy  and  the  daily  reci- 
tation of  the  Breviary,  or  collection  of  psalms  and  prayers,  occupy- 
ing a  considerable  time.  The  minor  orders  are  four  in  number,  and 
are  preceded  by  the  tonsure,  an  ecclesiastical  ceremony  in  which  the 
hair  is  shorn,  initiatory  to  the  ecclesiastical  state. 


536  ROMAN    CAT  Tl  OLIOS. 

out  sacrilege.  I  also  receive  and  admit  the  received  and 
approved  ceremonies  of  the  Catholic  Church,  used  in  the 
solemn  administration  of  the  aforesaid  sacraments. 

"I  embrace  and  receive  all  and  every  one  of  the  things 
which  have  been  defined  and  declared  in  the  holy  Council 
of  Trent,  concerning  original  sin  and  justification. 

"  I  profess  likewise  that  in  the  mass  there  is  offered  to 
God  a  true,  proper,  and  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  the  liv- 
ing and  the  dead ;  and  that  in  the  most  holy  sacrament  of 
the  eucharist  there  is  truly,  really,  and  substantially,  the 
body  and  blood,  together  with  the  soul  and  divinity,  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ;  and  that  there  is  made  a  change  of  the 
whole  substance  of  the  bread  into  the  body,  and  of  the 
whole  substance  of  the  wine  into  the  blood,  which  change 
the  Catholic  Church  calls  transubstantiation.  I  also  con- 
fess that  under  either  kind  alone  Christ  is  received  whole 
and  entire,  and  a  true  sacrament. 

"  I  firmly  hold  that  there  is  a  purgatory,  and  that  the 
souls  therein  detained  are  helped  by  the  suffrages  of  the 
faithful. 

"  Likewise,  that  the  saints  reigning  with  Christ  are  to 
be  honored  and  invocated,  and  that  they  offer  up  prayers 
to  God  for  us ;  and  that  their  relics  are  to  be  had  in  vene- 
ration. 

"  I  most  firmly  assert  that  the  images  of  Christ,  of  the 
mother  of  God,  and  also  of  other  saints,  ought  to  be  had 
and  retained,  and  that  due  honor  and  veneration  are  to  be 
given  them. 

"  I  also  affirm  that  the  power  of  indulgences  was  left  by 
Christ  in  the  Church,  and  that  the  use  of  them  is  most 
wholesome  to  Christian  people. 

"  I  acknowledge  the  holy  Catholic  Apostolic  Roman 
Church  for  the  mother  and  mistress  of  all  churches ;  and 
I  pro-nise  true  obedience  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome, 


ROMAN    CATHOLICS.  587 

to  St.  Peter,  prince  of  the  apostles,  and  vicar  of  Jesus 
Christ." 

Then  follow  clauses  condemnatory  of  all  contrary  doc- 
trines, and  expressive  of  adhesion  to  all  the  definitions  of 
the  Council  of  Trent. 

It  is  ohvious  that  this  form  of  confession  was  framed  in 
accordance  to  the  decrees  of  that  council,  and  consequently 
has  chiefly  in  view  the  opinions  of  those  who  followed  the 
Reformation.  It  would  be  foreign  to  our  purpose  to  enter 
into  any  explanations  of  the  doctrines  here  laid  down, 
much  less  into  any  statement  of  the  grounds  on  which 
Catholics  hold  them,  as  we  purposely  refrain  from  all  po- 
lemical discussion. 

Such  is  the  doctrinal  code  of  the  Catholic  Church ;  of 
its  moral  doctrines  we  need  not  say  anything,  because  no 
authorized  document  could  be  well  referred  to  that  embo- 
dies them  all.  There  are  many  decrees  of  Popes  condem- 
natory of  immoral  opinions  or  propositions,  but  no  positive 
decrees.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  moral  law,  as  taught 
in  the  Catholic  Church,  is  mainly  the  same  as  other  deno- 
minations of  Christians  profess  to  follow. 

Of  the  disciplinary  or  governing  code  we  have  already 
spoken,  when  we  observed  that  it  consisted  of  the  Canon 
Law,  which,  unlike  the  doctrinal  and  moral  code,  may 
vary  with  time,  place,  and  accidental  circumstances. 

III.  Our  last  head  was  the  essential  or  constitutive 
principle  of  the  Catholic  Church.  By  this  we  mean  that 
principle  which  gives  it  individuality,  distinguishes  it  from 
other  religions,  pervades  all  its  institutions,  and  gives  the 
answer  to  every  query  regarding  the  peculiar  constitution 
outward  and  inward  of  this  Church. 

Now,  the  fundamental  position,  the  constitutive  princi- 
ple of  the  Catholic  Church,  is  the  doctrine  and  belief  that 
God  has  promised,  and  consequently  bestows  upon  it,  a 


ROMAN    CATHOLICS. 

constant  and  perpetual  protection,  to  the  extent  of  guar- 
anteeing it  from  destruction,  from  error,  or  fatal  corrup- 
tion. This  principle  once  admitted,  everything  else  fol- 
lows. 1.  The  infallibility  of  the  Church  in  its  decisions  on 
matters  concerning  faith.  2.  The  obligation  of  submitting 
to  all  these  decisions,  independently  of  men's  own  private 
judgments  or  opinions.  3.  The  authority  of  tradition,  or 
the  unalterable  character  of  all  the  doctrines  committed  to 
the  Church ;  and  hence  the  persuasion  that  those  of  ita 
dogmas  Avhich  to  others  appear  strange  and  unscriptural, 
Inve  been  in  reality  handed  down,  uncorrupted,  since  the 
time  of  the  apostles,  who  received  them  from  Christ's 
teaching.  4.  The  necessity  of  religious  unity,  by  perfect 
uniformity  of  belief;  and  thence,  as  a  corollary,  the  sin- 
fulness  of  wilful  separation  or  schism,  and  culpable  errors 
or  heresy.  5.  Government  by  authority,  since  they  who 
are  aided  and  supported  by  such  a  promise  must  necossa- 
ril/  be  considered  appointed  to  direct  others,  and  are  held 
us  the  representatives  and  vicegerents  of  Christ  in  the 
Church.  6.  The  papal  supremacy,  whether  considered  as 
a  necessary  provision  for  the  preservation  of  this  essential 
unity,  or  as  the  principal  depository  of  the  divine  pro- 
mises. 7.  In  fine,  the  authority  of  councils,  the  right  to 
enact  canons  and  ceremonies,  the  duty  of  repressing  all 
attempts  to  broach  new  opinions ;  in  a  word,  all  that  sys- 
tem of  rule  and  authoritative  teaching  which  must  strike 
every  one  as  the  leading  feature  in  the  constitution  of  the 
Catholic  Church. 

The  differences,  therefore,  between  this  and  other  reli- 
gions, however  complicated  and  numerous  they  may  at 
first  sight  appear,  are  thus  in  truth  narrowed  to  one  ques- 
tion ;  for  particular  doctrines  must  share  the  fate  of  the 
dogmas  above  cited,  as  forming  the  constitutive  principle 
of  the  Catholic  religion.  This  religion  claims  for  itself  a 


ROMAN    CATHOLICS.  539 

complete  consistency  from  its  first  principle  to  its  last  con- 
sequence, and  to  its  least  institution,  and  finds  fault  with 
others,  as  though  they  preserved  forms,  dignities,  and  doc- 
trines which  must  have  sprung  from  a  principle  by  them 
rejected,  but  which  are  useless  and  mistaken,  the  moment 
they  are  disjoined  from  it.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  consti- 
tution of  the  Catholic  Church  should  seem  to  possess  what 
is  essential  to  every  moral  organized  body — a  principle  of 
vitality  which  accounts  for  all  its  actions,  and  determines 
at  once  the  direction  and  the  intensity  of  all  its  functions. 
To  conclude  our  account  of  the  Catholic  Church,  we 
will  give  a  slight  view  of  the  extent  of  its  dominions,  by 
enumerating  the  countries  which  profess  its  doctrines,  or 
which  contain  considerable  communities  under  its  obedi- 
ence. In  Europe,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  Bel- 
gium, the  Austrian  empire,  including  Hungary,  Bavaria, 
Poland,  and  the  Rhenish  provinces  of  Prussia,  which  for- 
merly belonged  to  the  ecclesiastical  electorates,  profess  the 
Catholic  religion  as  that  of  the  state,  or,  according  to  the 
expression  of  the  French  chart e,  that  of  the  majority  of 
the  people.  In  America,  all  the  countries  which  once 
formed  part  of  the  Spanish  dominions,  both  in  the  south- 
ern and  northern  portion  of  the  continent,  and  which  are 
now  independent  states,  profess  exclusively  the  same  reli- 
gion. The  empire  of  Brazil  is  also  Catholic.  Lower 
Canada,  and  all  those  islands  in  the  West  Indies  which 
belong  to  Spain  or  France,  including  the  Republic  of 
Hayti,  profess  the  Catholic  faith  ;  and  there  are  also  con- 
siderable Catholic  communities  in  the  United  States  of 
North  America.  Many  Indian  tribes,  in  the  Canadas,  in 
the  United  States,  and  in  South  America,  have  embraced 
the  same  faith.  In  Asia  there  is  hard'j"  any  nation  pro- 
fessing Christianity  which  does  not  contain  large  commu- 
ni'^es  of  Catholic  Christians.  Thus,  in  Syria  the  entire 


540  ROMAN    CATHOLICS. 

nation  or  tribe  of  the  Maronites,  dispersed  over  Mount 
Libanus,  are  subjects  of  the  Roman  see,  governed  by  a 
patriarch  and  bishops  appointed  by  it.  There  are  also 
other  Syriac  Christians  under  other  bishops,  united  to  the 
same  see,  who  are  dispersed  all  over  Palestine  and  Syria 
At  Constantinople  there  is  a  Catholic  Armenian  patriarch, 
who  governs  the  united  Armenians,  as  they  are  called, 
large  communities  of  whom  also  exist  in  Armenia  proper. 
The  Abbe*  Dubois,  in  his  examination  before  a  committee 
of  the  English  House  of  Commons,  in  1832,  stated  the 
number  of  Catholics  in  the  Indian  peninsula  at  600,000, 
including  Ceylon ;  and  this  number  is  perhaps  rather  un- 
derrated than  otherwise.  They  are  governed  by  four 
bishops,  and  four  vicars  apostolic  with  episcopal  consecra- 
tion. A  new  one  has  been  added  for  Ceylon.  We  have 
not  the  means  of  ascertaining  the  number  of  Catholics  in 
China;  but  in  the  province  of  Su-Chuen  alone  they  were 
returned,  September  22,  1824,  at  47,487  (Annales  de  la 
Propag.  de  la  Foi,  No.  XL,  p.  257);  and  an  official  re- 
port published  at  Rome,  in  the  same  year,  gives  those  in 
the  provinces  of  Fo-kien  and  Kiansi  at  40,000.  There 
are  seven  other  provinces  containing  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  Catholics,  of  which  we  have  no  return.  In  the 
united  empire  of  Tonkin  and  Cochin-China,  the  Catholics 
of  one  district  were  estimated  at  200,000  (2bid.,  No.  X., 
p.  194) ;  and,  till  the  late  persecution,  there  was  a  college 
with  200  students,  and  convents  containing  700  religious. 
Another  district  gave  a  return,  in  1826,  of  2955  infants 
baptized,  which  would  give  an  estimate  of  88,000  adult 
Christians.  A  third  gave  a  return  of  170,000.  M.  Du- 
bois estimated  the  number  of  native  Catholics  in  the  Phi- 
lippine Islands  at  2,000,000.  In  Africa,  the  islands  of 
Mauritius  and  Bourbon  are  Catholic,  and  all  the  Portu- 


ROMAN    CATHOLICS.  541 

gucse  settlements  on  the  coasts,  as  well  as  the  Azores, 
Madeira,  the  Cape  Verde,  and  the  Canary  Islands. 

The  history  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  this  country  be- 
gins with  the  discovery  of  Columbus,  the  Roman  Catholic 
subject  of  a  Roman  Catholic  government.  Their  first  im- 
portant movement  in  gaining  a  footing  within  the  present 
boundaries  of  the  United  States  was  made  by  Lord  Balti- 
more. He  obtained  from  Charles  I.  the  charter  of  Mary- 
land, and  appointed  his  brother  Leonard  Calvert  to  be 
governor  of  the  new  colony.  The  first  body  of  emigrants 
consisted  of  about  two  hundred  gentlemen  of  rank  and  for- 
tune. They  reached  the  shores  of  the  Potomac  in  1632. 

The  early  missions  of  this  denomination  extended  to  all 
the  principal  tribes  of  the  aborigines,  and  explored  the 
countries  of  the  great  lakes  and  the  Mississippi.  That 
portion  of  the  Roman  Catholics  which  have  descended  from 
the  early  settlers  of  the  country  are  comparatively  liberal 
in  their  views,  and  many  of  them  except  to  the  exclusive 
spirit  of  the  ancient  hierarchy,  and  allow  their  Protestant 
brethren  to  be  good  Christians,  so  far  as  they  adorn  the 
Christian  faith  by  a  devout  and  charitable  spirit.  In  the 
early  settlement  of  Louisiana  nearly  all  the  people  were 
Roman  Catholics.  The  laws  were  originally  made  to  favor 
that  form  of  religion.  They  have  been  gradually  changed 
or  relaxed  in  their  administration.  So  late,  however,  as 
1834  or  1835,  the  Presbyterian  church  in  New  Orleans 
w^s  not  allowed  to  ring  its  bell  for  a  week-day  evening 
service,  on  the  ground  of  an  old  law  which  restricted  that 
right  to  the  Roman  Catholic  churches.  Yet,  it  ought  to  be 
caid  in  perfect  fairness  that  the  Roman  Catholics  were  not 
the  persons  to  request  the  enforcement  of  the  odious  law. 
Its  execution  was  threatened  only  by  Protestants,  and  the 
Protestant  council  of  the  second  municipality  refused  to 
grant  the  permission  which  the  law  gave  them  power  tc 

46 


542  KOMAN    CATHOLICS. 

grant  as  a  special  favor.  Probably  no  portion  of  our  popu- 
lation are  more  perfectly  tolerant  in  their  principles  and 
feelings  than  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Louisiana. 

From  the  period  of  the  early  settlement  of  Maryland 
and  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  there  was  but  a  slight 
increase  of  the  people  of  this  persuasion  till  within  the  last 
tAventy  years. 

Lately  the  tide  of  foreign  immigration  has  greatly 
swollen,  and  the  increase  of  Roman  Catholics  is  rapid. 
They  now  constitute  more  than  one-twentieth  of  our  popu- 
lation. Considering,  however,  the  excess  of  Protestant  in- 
crease from  births  and  immigration,  and  the  great  mortality 
of  the  poor  foreigners,  it  is  doubted  whether  the  ratio  of 
increase  of  Roman  Catholics  is  as  great  as  that  of  the 
Protestants. 

It  ought  also  to  be  acknowledged  with  thankfulness  to 
God,  that  in  all  their  published  declarations  the  Roman 
Catholic  priesthood  express  their  distinct  disapprobation 
of  all  violence  and  unfairness  in  enforcing  the  claims  of 
their  religion.  One  of  their  gifted  writers  says,  "  If  it 
[proselytism]  imply  the  use  of  any  means  that  are  unfair, 
unhandsome,  dishonorable,  or  uncharitable;  of  violence, 
bribery,  false  arguments,  or  any  other  means  whatsoever 
than  such  as  are  dictated  by  the  strictest  truth  and  ani- 
mated by  pure  benevolence,  then,  indeed,  is  proselytism  as 
odious  as  it  is  unchristian  ;  then,  be  it  far  from  every 
Catholic  and  from  every  Christian.  Be  it  hated  and 
detested  by  every  lover  of  honesty,  of  truth,  and  of 
charity." 

The  Roman  Catholics  have  numerous  institutions  of 
learning,  nunneries,  orphan  asylums,  and  various  founda- 
tions of  charity.  Their  colleges  have  accomplished  pro- 
fessors, but  they  have  never  been  able  to  place  themselves 
on  an  equality  with  such  institutions  as  Princeton  and  Yale 


SPIRITUALISTS.  543 

colleges  and  Harvard  University.     Their  female  schools 
are  more  effective,  because  distinguished  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  those  branches  of  learning  and  art  which  adorn 
he  feminine  character. 

They  have  now  (1860)  in  the  United  States,  thirty-two 
Theological  Seminaries,  seven  Preparatory  Seminaries, 
thirty  colleges,  twenty-seven  periodical  publications,  two 
thousand  cue  hundred  and  eight  clergymen,  one  thousand 
nine  hundred  and  seventy-eight  churches,  and  the  Catho- 
lio  population  is  estimated  at  twenty-five  hundred  thou- 
sand. In  the  British  Provinces,  six  hundred  and  nineteen 
churches,  three  hundred  and  sixty-nine  clergymen,  and 
one  million  and  seventeen  thousand  Catholic  population. 
The  growth  of  this  denomination  appears  of  late  years 
to  have  been  very  rapid ;  and  this  circumstance  is  proba- 
bly owing  to  the  large  immigration  from  Europe. 


SPIKITUALISTS. 

SPIRITUALISM  is  a  form  of  religion  which  existed  from 
antiquity,  but  as  a  sect,  Spiritualists  are  the  voungest  of 
the  existing  denominations.  The  first  representatives  of 
it  resided  in  Eochester,  New  York,  who,  about  the  year 
1848,  began  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  public,  by  de- 
claring that  they  held  communications  with  departed 
spirits  by  means  of  rapping  on  tables,  knocking  on  the 
walls,  and  other  mysterious  and  unaccountable  noises. 

So  remarkable  a  phenomenon  at  once  excited  general 
attention,  and  several  parties  were  formed  in  reference  to 
the  subject,  some  asserting  the  genuineness  of  the  mat- 
ter, others  contending  that  the  whole  was  an  imposture, 


544  SPIRITUALISTS. 

and  that  no  communication  had  taken  place,  or  possibly 
could  take  place,  between  the  living  and  the  dead.  Not- 
withstanding the  opposition  which  was  arrayed  against 
Spiritualism,  facts  continued  to  accumulate,  and  experi 
rnents  were  made  which  seemed  to  stagger  the  belief  of 
the  most  incredulous,  and  made  it  very  difficult  for  those 
who  condemned  Spiritualism  as  an  imposition,  to  account 
for  them. 

The  great  principle  of  Spiritualism  is,  that  the  spirits 
of  the  departed,  who  are  no  longer  "in  the  form,"  can 
and  do  hold  intelligent  and  sensible  intercourse  with 
those  still  living ;  and  that  they  accomplish  this  result  in 
various  ways,  by  raps  on  tables,  by  messages,  by  moving 
material  objects  about,  by  prophecies,  by  writing  and 
speaking  unknowu  tongues,  by  spiritual  shocks  and 
touches  of  the  person,  by  spiritual  melodies,  and  by  the 
visible  appearance  of  spirits  to  the  living. 

Within  the  last  sixteen  years  thousands  of  persons  have 
been  thus  used  as  mediums  of  communication  with  the 
spirits  of  the  departed.  Some  are  made  to  see  and  de- 
scribe spirits,  others  are  controlled  to  write  out  communi- 
cations, often  giving  test  facts  unknown  to  the  medium, 
and  sometimes  written  in  Phonography,  Greek,  Latin, 
or  some  language  not  understood  by  any  one  present.  In 
the  presence  of  some  mediums,  tables,  chairs,  and  other 
articles  are  moved,  and  sometimes  raised  and  carried 
about  the  loom,  by  invisible  means.  Bells  are  rung, 
drums  beateL  horns  blown,  guitars,  dulcimers,  banjoes, 
tambourines  violins,  accordeons,  and  pianos,  are  played 
upon  by  invjs  Vie  operators.  Impressional  and  inspira- 
tional mediums  .lave  had  positive  demonstrations  of  spirit 
influence;  and  hundreds  of  thousands  have  had  testa 
which  have  fully  convinced  them  of  the  possibility  oi 
communicating  with  departed  friends  and  relatives. 


SPIRITUALISTS.  545 

The  majority  of  Spiritualists  conter.-d,  that  these 
manifestations  are  not  confined  to  the  present  or  recent 
times,  but  that  they  have  existed  in  all  ages,  though 
their  real  nature  was  unknown  and  unsuspected.  Of 
this  kind,  they  contend,  were  the  revelations  of  God  to 
Moses  on  Mount  Sinai,  in  the  Shekinah,  those  made  to 
Isaiah,  and  the  other  Hebrew  Prophets,  the  appear- 
ance of  angels  at  the  sepulchre  of  Christ,  and  various 
other  events  in  the  Scriptures. 

The  instruments  by  means  of  which  communications 
are  alleged  to  take  place  between  spirits  and  the  living, 
are  called  media.  These  media  are  of  various  kinds. 
Writing  media,  who  write  while  in  a  state  of  trance, 
and  whose  hands  are  entirely  under  the  contiol  of  the 
spirits.  Speaking  media,  who,  while  in  a  state  of  trance, 
speak  under  the  influence  of  spirits.  Seeing  media, 
whose  development  is  so  high  and  perfect,  that  they 
can  see  spirits  with  their  physical  sight.  Discerning 
media,  who,  by  placing  a  sealed  letter  on  top  of  their 
heads,  or  on  the  palms  of  their  hands,  can  read  the 
contents.  Normal  media,  who  speak  in  a  natural  state, 
but  are  under  the  influence  of  a  temporary  inspiration. 
Some  media  are  public,  others  are  private;  and  media 
of  both  kinds  possess  different  degrees  of  excellence 
and  power. 

Spiritualists  also  contend  that  spirits  are  themselves 
possessed  of  different  degrees  of  capability  to  commu- 
nicate with  those  "in  the  form,"  or  who  are  still  alive 
and  in  the  body.  Before  a  spirit  can  read,  or  commu- 
nicate through  the  alphabet,  it  must  possess  the  neces- 
sary acquaintance  with  letters.  A  spirit  which  left  the 
body  without  being  able  to  read,  and  without  any 
acquaintance  with  science,  cannot  make  communica- 
tions which  involve  scientific  knowledge.  It  is  also 

46*  9.K 


546  SPIRITUALISTS. 

alleged  that  the  medium  through  which  spirits  commu- 
nicate is  a  certain  fluid  iri  the  atmosphere,  which  is 
more  subtle  than  ether;  hence  the  state  of  the  weathei 
has  an  important  bearing  on  their  communications, 
In  damp,  rainy,  and  dreary  weather,  when  the  atmos- 
phere is  heavy,  they  are  restricted  in  their  operations, 
because  of  the  deficiency  of  this  mysterious  fluid. 

By  the  use  of  these  means,  Spiritualists  have  arrived 
at  the  adoption  of  the  following  doctrinal  opinions, 
which  they  regard  as  their  system  of  belief:  —  They  be- 
lieve in  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being,  and  of  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost.  But  they  do  not  regard 
these  three  as  coequal,  separate,  and  divine  personages, 
according  to  the  orthodox  views  of  the  Christian 
Trinity.  They  believe  that  all  the  spirits  who  now 
exist  in  the  "  Spirit  world,"  once  existed  in  connec- 
tion with  a  physical  body,  or,  as  their  jargon  terms  it, 
"  in  the  form."  That  the  Spirit  world  is  composed  of 
a  great  number  of  spheres,  each  one  of  which  is  divided 
and  subdivided  into  a  number  of  minor  spheres,  whose 
variety  is  equal  to  the  variety  of  individualities  which 
exist  among  meu  on  earth.  That  the  first  sphere  into 
which  the  spirit  passes  when  it  leaves  "  the  form"  is, 
in  many  respects,  the  counterpart  of  their  condition 
here,  and  advanced  but  a  single  degree  beyond  their 
character  and  condition  here.  That  the  spirits  of 
higher  spheres  can  read  the  thoughts  of  all  those 
spirits  which  belong  to  lower  spheres.  That  the  spirit 
of  man  is  immortal ;  and  that  the  nature  of  the  sphere 
into  which  a  man  enters  in  the  other  world  depends 
upon  his  character  when  he  dies.  If  his  character  and 
feelings  are  base,  he  will  enter  into  a  base  sphere. 
That  ibr  every  injury  inflicted  on  others,  the  spirit 


SPIRITUALISTS.  547 

fe-nall  be  punished  by  the  suffering  of  mental  tortures 
proportioned  to  the  degree  of  his  crime. 

Spiritualists  also  hold  that  the  natural  tendency  of 
spirits  in  the  future  world  is  one  of  constant  progres- 
sion from  lower  to  higher  spheres,  and  that  every  man's 
moral  status  at  death  is  the  starting  point  from  which 
he  enters  the  future  state.  As  to  infants,  they  think 
that,  on  entering  the  world  of  spirits,  they  are  taken  in] 
charge  by  developed  matrons,  who  educate  them,  and 
gradually  introduce  them  into  higher  circles,  and  con- 
tinue their  care  until  they  become  adults.  This  is  done, 
unless  in  the  meantime  the  mother  of  the  child  arrives 
»n  the  spirit  world ;  in  which  case,  if  she  be  fit  to  enter 
the  same  sphere,  the  child  will  be  entrusted  to  her  cus- 
tody, if  not,  it  will  be  retained  in  the  care  of  those  who 
are  more  fit  for  the  responsibility. 


APPENDIX, 


In  this  Appendix  it  is  designed  to  give  additional  and  later 
Information  on  the  various  sects,  correcting  some  errors,  and 
bringing  up  all  to  the  present  time,  1871. 

SPIRITUALISTS.  Some  recent  developments  of  the 
origin  and  tendencies  of  the  system  professed  by  this  new  sect, 
have  given  it  a  startling  importance.  Wm.  B.  Potter,  M.D., 
of  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  in  a  pamphlet  dated  June  7, 
1866,  entitled  "  Facts,  Fancies,  and  Follies  of  Spiritualism 
Explained,"  has  given  a  testimony  which  claims  to  be  of  the 
highest  authority,  from  which  we  shall  freely  quote.  The 
matter  belongs  to  the  public,  if  only  in  the  way  of  warning. 
Dr.  Potter,  himself  a  leading  medium,  says  : 

"  Fifteen  years'  critical  study  of  Spiritual  Literature,  an  ex- 
tensive acquaintance  with  the  leading  Spiritualists,  and  a 
patient,  systematic,  and  thorough  investigation  of  the  mani- 
festations, for  many  years,  enable  us  to  speak  from  actual 
knowledge,  definitely  and  positively  of  Spiritualism  As  It  Is 

"  Spirit  communications,  full  of  the  wildest  fancies,  and  the 
most  absurd  and  contradictory  teachings,  have  been  so  com- 
mon that  it  is  no  wonder  that  men  of  science  and  sound  sense, 
who  have  not  had  the  most  ample  test  of  spirit  manifestations, 
look  upon  the  whole  thing  as  the  vagaries  of  a  diseased  brain  . 
tbe  hallucinations  of  a  moon-struck  imagination,  or  the  tricks 
of  the  vilest  imposters. 

"  Among  the  innumerable  follies,  of  which  Spiritualists  have 
been  guilty,  the  greatest  is  following  the  advice  of  free-lovers, 
libertines  and  low  spirits,  in  refusing  to  disfellowship  tbe  per- 
sistently vicious,  when  it  is  a  notorious  fact  that  many  medi- 

548 


APPENDIX.  549 

urns  are  practicing  the  most  detestable  trickery,  deceit,  fraud 
and  falsehood.  That  leading  teachers,  noted  mediums,  and 
popular  speakers,  have  deserted  companions,  obtained  vli- 
vorces,  gone  off  with  affinities,  or  practiced  promiscuous  inter- 
course to  get  spiritual  elements,  or  to  impart  vital  magnetism 
for  the  cure  of  diseases.  Hundreds  of  families  have  been 
broken  up,  and  many  affrctionate  wives  deserted  by  affinity- 
seeking  husbands ;  many  once  devoted  wives  have  been 
Beduced  and  left  their  husbands  and  tender,  helpless  children, 
to  follow  some  higher  attraction  ;  many  well  disposed  but 
simple-minded  girls  have  been  deluded  by  affinity  notions, 
and  led  off  by  affinity  hunters,  to  be  deserted  in  a  few  months, 
with  blasted  reputations,  or  led  to  deeds  still  more  dark  and 
criminal  to  hide  their  shame.  Yet,  in  the  face  of  all  this,  at 
the  National  Convention  of  Spiritualists,  at  Chicago,  called 
to  consider  the  question  of  a  National  Organization,  the  only 
plan  approved  by  its  committee  especially  provided  that  No 
charge  should  ever  be  entertained  against  any  member,  and 
that  any  person,  without  any  regard  to  moral  character 
might  become  a  member. 

"  The  fact  of  so  much  immorality  and  licentiousness  among 
Spiritualists,  is  mainly  due  to  three  things  :  1st.  The  teach- 
ings of  seducing  spirits,  who  have  constantly  and  persistently, 
in  every  possible  way,  from  the  gentlest  and  most  covert,  to 
the  boldest  and  most  reckless,  assailed  the  binding  force  of 
marriage  bonds.  Nearly  every  case  of  affinity,  folly  or  free 
love  crime,  from  first  to  last,  has  been  approved,  if  nc* 
planned,  by  spirits.  2d.  The  magnetism  of  low,  selfish,  ser- 
Bual,  deceitful  spirits,  tends  to  develop  the  same  traits  in 
mediums  subject  to  their  influence.  The  downward  course 
of  many  mediums  is  owing  to  this  cause.  3d.  Sensual, 
deceitful,  spirits,  naturally  seek  mediums  of  like  character, 
•whom  they  aid  and  incite  to  practice  the  most  debasing  and 
detestable  trickery,  deceit  and  sensuality.  The  private  his, 
tory  of  many  mediums,  if  made  public,  would  astound  and 
disgust  the  better  class  of  Spiritualists." 


•350  APPENDIX. 

EPISCOPALIANS.  The  right  of  convocation  his  been 
recently  restored  to  the  Church  of  England.  The  case  of 
Dr.  Colenso,  missionary  Bishop  of  Natal,  South  Africa, 
accused  of  infidelity,  approaches  its  solution  in  a  way  that 
honors  the  Church  of  England  as  an  ecclesiastical  body,  yet 
at  the  same  time  threatens  its  relation  to  the  English  Govern- 
ment. At  the  request  of  the  diocese  of  Natal,  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  acting  with  the  voice  of  his  convocation,  has 
appointed  another  Bishop,  who  will  take  the  title  of  Bishop 
of  Maritzburg.  All  the  Bishops  of  South  Africa  will  concur 
1  in  his  consecration.  On  the  other  hand  Mr.  Cardvvell,  Colo- 
nial Secretary,  writes  in  a  recent  despatch  that  the  Govern- 
ment will  sustain  Bishop  Colenso,  who  holds  letters  patent 
from  the  crown. 

The  formal  sentence  of  excommunication  which  the  Bishop 
of  Capetown  has  pronounced  against  Dr.  Colenso,  has  been 
officially  communicated  to  all  the  Anglican  Bishops  through- 
out the  world,  including  the  Bishops  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States.  It  has  everywhere 
met  with  a  cordial  approval. 

The  reunion  of  the  Southern  dioceses  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States,  with  the  General  Con- 
vention, which  had  been  interrupted  for  five  years  by  the  late 
Rebellion,  is  now  complete  ;  every  diocesan  convention  of  the 
South  having  passed  resolutions  to  that  effect,  and  the  Bishops 
having  officially  announced  the  result  to  the  presiding  Bishop. 
In  most  of  the  conventions  the  resolutions  were  passed  by  a 
unanimous  vote,  and  kind  feelings  expressed  toward  the 
Northern  members  of  the  Church  :  only  in  Virginia  a  strong, 
though  ineffectual,  opposition  was  made. 

The  wish  for  a  large  increase  of  the  Episcopal  Sees,  by  a 
division  of  the  present  dioceses  in  this  country,  is  rapidly 
increasing.  This  is  said  to  be  a  favorite  scheme  of  the  High 
Church  party. 

The  first  annual  report  of  the  Eastern  Church  Association 
contains  some  interesting  statements  on  the  progress  of  the 


APPENDIX.  *65f 

movement,  for  effecting  a  union  between  the  Anglican  ard 
the  Eastern  Church.  We  learn  from  it  also,  that  negotiations 
are  pending  for  a  reunion  between  the  Greek  and  the  Armenian 
Churches.  The  association  has  two  hundred  and  eighty 
members,  and  among  its  patrons  are  English,  Scotch,  Colonial, 
American,  and  also  two  Servian  Bishops.  It  contemplates  a 
reunion  of  the  English  Church  not  only  with  the  Greek,  but 
also  with  the  Russian,  Swedish,  Moravian  and  all  other 
Episcopal  Churches. 

DUTCH  REFORMED  CHURCH.  The  General  Synod 
which  met  in  New  York  city  in  June,  1866,  gives  interesting 
reports  of  its  work  among  the  Freedmen  of  the  South  and 
its  mission  to  Japan.  A  committee  was  appointed  to  consider 
the  expediency  and  propriety  of  dropping  the  word  Dutch  in 
the  name  of  the  Church,  and  to  report  at  the  next  Synod. 

GERMAN  REFORMED  CHURCH.  The  unity  of 
this  Church  is  now  fully  restored,  after  the  five  years  of 
separation,  caused  by  the  great  Rebellion  of  the  South.  The 
classis  of  Virginia  and  the  classis  of  North  Carolina,  the  only 
ones  of  this  connection  belonging  to  the  South,  have  returned 
to  its  jurisdiction.  The  increasing  number  of  German  emi- 
grants into  the  Southern  States  is  likely  to  add  largely  to  the 
Southern  membership  of  this  denomination. 

LUTHERANS.  The  General  Synod  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church,  May  16,  1866,  had  no  delegates  present 
from  the  late  Confederate  States,  and  there  seems  as  yet  no 
prospect  of  reunion.  The  conflict  between  the  High  Church 
and  Low  Church  party,  which  nas  for  many  years  been 
widening,  assumed  this  year  a  much  more  serious  aspect.  At 
the  last  General  Synod,  in  1864,  the  delegates  of  the  synod 
of  Pennsylvania  withdrew  from  the  General  Synod,  being  dis- 
satisfied with  the  indefinite  declarations  of  the  latter  body  as 
regards  the  obligatory  character  of  the  Augsburg  Confession. 


552  APPENDIX. 

On  calling  the  roll  of  delegates  for  this  year's  Synod,  tlm 
president  refused  to  call  the  names  of  the  Pennsylvania  synod 
taking  that  synod  out  of  governing  relation  to  the  General 
Synod.  This  decision  was  sustained  by  the  Low  Church 
party,  who  were  found  to  have  a  large  majority,  and  who 
also  carried  a  vote  of  censure  against  the  Pennsylvania  synod  ; 
the  delegates  of  which  thereupon  withdrew  from  the  General 
Synod.  A  committee  was  appointed  to  correspond  with  the 
seceded  Southern  synod,  with  a  view  to  reunion,  and  another 
committee  was  appointed  to  report  at  the  next  meeting  a  re- 
vision of  the  constitution  of  the  General  Synod,  by  which  it 
shall  be  made  not  simply  an  advisory  body,  but  the  highest 
legislative  and  executive  body  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the 
United  States,  whose  acts  and  decisions  shall  be  authoritative 
and  final  in  all  matters  specifically  intrusted  to  it  by  the  con- 
stitution. Amendments  specifying  the  ratio  of  representation 
and  the  doctrinal  basis  of  admission  to  the  General  Synod, 
having  been  approved  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  every  synod, 
were  adopted. 

The  General  Synod  of  the  South  at  their  meeting  June 
14,  1866,  concluded  to  adopt  the  name  of  the  "Evangelical 
Lutheran  Synod  of  the  United  States."  This  body,  which 
consists  of  all  the  Southern  synods  except  Texas,  is  decidedly 
under  the  influence  of  High  Church  tendencies,  and  gave  a 
new  proof  of  this  by  resolving  to  put  itself  squarely  on  a 
confessional  basis.  All  ministers  will  henceforth  be  required 
to  adhere  strictly  to  the  Augsburg  Confession.  The  body  also 
expressed  its  readiness  to  join  the  new  General  Synod  of  the 
North  when  it  shall  be  formed  as  above  ;  but  the  synod  of  Texas, 
was  not  represented,  and  still  declares  its  sympathy  with 
the  General  Synod  of  the  United  States. 

The  secession  of  the  Lutheran  synod  of  Pennsylvania  from 
the  General  Synod  is  now  complete.  This  is  the  oldest  and 
most  numerous  of  all  the  synods  of  the  United  States.  The 
cause  of  its  secession  is  stated  above.  At  its  last  annual 
meeting,  June,  1866,  it  was  resolved  to  dissolve  its  former 


APPENDIX.  553 

Connection,  and  to  invite  all  Lutheran  synods  which  accept 
the  unaltered  Confession  of  Augsburg  as  their  doctrinal 
standard,  to  hold  soon  a  general  convention  for  the  purpose 
of  organizing  a  new  (High  Church)  General  Synod.  Dele- 
gates to  such  a  convention  have  already  been  chosen  by  the 
synods  of  Pennsylvania  and  Wisconsin. 

METHODISTS.  The  latest  representations  of  the  various 
branches  of  this  numerous  and  progressive  body  of  Christians 
indicate  general  prosperity.  Several  organic  changes  have 
been  adopted  in  the  polity  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South.  A  proposition  to  change  the  name  to  "  The  Episcopal 
Methodist  Church  "  obtained  extensive  favor,  but  finally  failed 
to  receive  the  constitutional  sanction  of  a  two-thirds  vote,  and, 
to  the  regret  of  many,  the  measure  was  not  carried.  This 
body  made  provision  for  the  admission  of  lay  members  into 
both  its  general  and  annual  conferences"  before  the  plan  was 
sanctioned  by  the  Northern  section  of  the  denomination.  Some 
modification  of  the  rule  concerning  class  meeting  has  obtained, 
and  a  system  of  "District  Conferences"  inaugurated  which 
brings  the  bishops  into  more  immediate  contact  with  the  min- 
istry and  laity,  and  exerts  a  wholesome  influence  on  the  Sun- 
day-schools, educational  and  financial  interests  of  the  church. 
The  pastoral  term  has  been  extended,  and  certain  restrictions 
in  the  discipline  on  minor  points  of  deportment,  dress,  etc., 
removed.  The  bounds  of  this  church  have  extended  to  Bal- 
timore, Md.,  and  also  into  some  of  the  Western  States,  and 
California. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  since  the  close  of  the  war, 
has  very  greatly  enlarged  the  area  of  its  operations  in  the 
South.  Ten  or  more  conferences  have  been  organized,  em- 
bracing an  aggregate  membership  of  over  one  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand.  The  distinctions  long  existing  between  white 
and  colored  persons  are  abolished,  and  both  races  stand  on 
an  equality  in  ecclesiastical  privilege,  in  the  conferences  and 
various  official  positions  yf  the  church. 


554  APPENDIX. 

Theological  institutions  for  the  education  of  colored  minis- 
ters have  been  established  at  Charlestown,  New  Orleans,  and 
other  places,  and  a  liberal  expenditure  of  missionary  money 
has  been  made  for  church  extension  and  ministerial  support. 

The  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has  received 
very  large  accessions  in  the  South  since  the  emancipation 
of  the  slaves,  and  a  new  organization,  embracing  largely  the 
colored  membership  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South,  has  been  formed,  by  which  they  now  maintain  an  inde- 
pendent character,  and  have  bishops  elected  from  their  own 
body. 

The  subject  of  a  unification  of  all  the  sects  of  Methodism 
has  received  considerable  attention  of  late.  Conventions  have 
been  held,  overtures  made,  and  a  friendly  spirit  obtains,  giv- 
ing promise  that  at  no  distant  period  a  concentration  of  the 
strength  and  energy  of  the  denomination  will  be  effected,  and 
most  of  the  minor  bodies  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
will  merge  into  one.  The  same  spirit  prevails  in  Great  Brita  in, 
and  a  union  of  the  great  Wesleyan  body  with  those  called 
New  Connection,  Primitive,  etc.,  will  most  likely  be  con- 
summated. 

In  July,  1870,  it  was  ascertained  that  the  numerical  strength 
of  Methodism,  including  all  branches  and  countries  where  it 
has  been  planted,  amounted  to  between  three  and  four  million 
members,  with  a  clerical  force,  embracing  lay  and  travelling 
preachers,  of  over  sixty  thousand.  The  influence  of  Metho- 
dism is  reacting  on  Germany  and  many  other  nations  of  the 
old  world,  through  its  converts  in  the  United  States,  who 
return  as  missionaries  to  the  fatherland.  This  is  also  the 
case  with  China  and  Japan.  It  is  the  policy  of  this  church 
to  enter  every  open  door,  and  fulfill  to  the  letter  the  saying 
of  the  celebrated  Wesley — "  The  world  is  my  parish." 

KIRK  OF  SCOTLAND.  Under  this  head  the  reader 
will  find  a  brief  account  of  the  formation  of  the  several  bodies 
of  Presbyterians,  who  have  dissented  from  her  communion. 


APPENDIX.  555 

The  principal  of  these  bodies,  at  the  present  time,  are 
the  "  Free  Church"  and  the  "  United  Presbyterians,"  formed 
by  a  coalescence  of  dissenters  of  an  earlier  date. 

The  General  Assemblies  of  these  two  great  bodies  in  both 
the  Free  Church  and  the  United  Presbyterian,  this  year 
(1866),  devoted  prominent  attention  to  the  question  of  union. 
Very  important  measures  were  taken  to  this  end,  which 
promise  a  happy  result.  The  finances  of  the  Free  Church 
are  in  a  flourishing  condition,  the  total  sum  raised  being 
£383,572,  an  increase  of  £25,374  over  the  last  year.  In  the 
United  Presbyterian  Synod  also,  the  contributions  per  member 
amounted  to  over  30  shillings.  In  seven  years  the  missionary 
contributions  had  risen  from  £40,000  to  £51,000.  The  num. 
oer  of  congregations  in  the  Synod,  592  ;  of  members,  172,752  ; 
of  ministers  620  ;  of  elders  4466. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  established  Church  (or  Kirk) 
had  an  animated  discussion  on  innovations,  such  as  the  use  of 
organs  and  the  use  of  a  book  of  prayer,  and  decided  against 
them  by  an  overwhelming  vote,  207  to  94. 

UNITED  PRESBYTERIANS.    See  the  foregoing  article. 

FREE  CHURCH.  See  the  article,  on  KIRK  OF  SCOT- 
LAND. 

AMERICAN  PRESBYTERIANS.  OLD  SCHOOL.  The 
Old  School  Assembly  was  divided  at  the  beginning  of  the 
late  war.  In  consequence  of  the  passage  of  resolutions  alh'rm- 
ing  loyalty  and  condemning  slavery,  the  Southern  delegates 
withdrew,  and  organized  a  new  General  Assembly  for  the 
Southern  States.  Since  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  efforts  have 
been  made  for  reunion,  but  hitherto  without  success. 

At  the  last  General  Assembly  at  St.  Louis,  May,  1866,  new 
sources  of  difficulty  arose.  The  Assembly  was  divided  into 
three  parties  with  regard  to  the  deliverances  by  the  last  live 
Assemblies  on  the  subjects  of  slavery  and  loyalty.  The  linal 


556  APPENDIX. 

adoption  of  the  motion  of  Dr.  Gurley  to  censure  the  senti- 
ments of  the  "  Declaration  and  Testimony"  of  the  Louisville 
Presbytery  as  "  slanderous  and  rebellious,  and  to  summon 
all  the  signers  before  the  bar  of  the  next  Assembly,  and  in  the 
meanwhile  to  prohibit  them  from  sitting  in  any  church  court 
higher  than  sessions,  has  produced  a  great  commotion  in  the 
Presbyteries  of  the  border  States.  A  number  of  ministers 
and  churches  in  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri,  have 
taken  ground  openly  against  the  Assembly.  The  seceders 
have  not  yet  declared  in  favor  of  a  union  with  the  Southern 
Presbyterian  Church,  but  it  is  understood  that  they  will  do 
so  as  soon  as  the  question  of  property  is  decided.  Meanwhile 
the  General  Assembly  stands  firm,  and  is  acting  with  decision 
in  dissolving  all  defiant  Presbyteries  and  constituting  new 
ones  of  loyal  members.  Their  missionaries  continue  their 
labor  among  the  Freedmen,  of  whom,  before  the  war  and  the 
act  of  emancipation  there  were  11,000  belonging  to  the 
Presbyterian  Church 

The  New  School  General  Assembly,  which  also  met  this 
year  in  St.  Louis,  adopted  unanimously  a  series  of  resolutions 
and  raised  a  committee  of  fifteen  to  meet  a  like  committee  of 
the  Old  School  Assembly  on  the  subject  of  an  organic  union 
between  these  important  bodies  of  Christians,  which  for  nearly 
thirty  years  have  been  divided.  Both  have  greatly  prospered 
the  last  year.  The  former  now  numbers  35  synods;  176 
Presybteries  ;  2294  ministers ;  2608  Churches;  and  239,306 
Church  members.  The  New  School  reports  109  Presbyteries  • 
1739  ministers  ;  1538  churches  ;  and  150,401  communicants. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  "  United  Presbyterians,"  as 
well  as  the  annual  meeting, of  the  two  branches  of  Reformed 
Presbyterians,  ("  Synod"  and  "  General  Synod")  appointed  a 
committee  for  making  a  plan  of  their  organic  union. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterians 
met  last  May  (1866),  and  appointed  a  committee  of  twenty 
members  one  from  each  synod,  on  the  deliverances  of  the  last 
assembly.  A  majority  of  this  committee  pronounced  the  a<y 


APPENDIX.  557 

tion  of  1864  and  1865  on  the  subject  of  slavery  and  the  re- 
bellion unconstitutional.  The  minority  proposed  in  sub- 
stance to  let  the  whole  matter  stand  where  it  is.  The 
Assembly  compromised  by  adopting  a  substitute,  disclaiming 
any  indorsement  of  the  action  taken  on  slavery  and  rebellion, 
and  declared  that  "  no  opinion"  on  these  subjects  is  expressed. 

FREE-WILL  BAPTISTS.  This  body  has  now  14T 
associations;  1252  churches;  1076  ordained  ministers; 
baptized  in  1865,  2034  :  total  membership  54,076.  They 
support  a  mission  in  India,  and  are  making  rapid  improve- 
ment in  education. 

PROGRESSIVE  FRIENDS.  A  portion  of  the  Hicksite 
Quakers  residing  in  the  neighborhood  of  Philadelphia,  about 
the  year  1855,  organized  under  this  name,  to  indicate  the  pro- 
gressive character  of  their  inquiries  and  convictions  on  the 
subject  of  religion.  They  hold  an  annual  meeting  at  Long- 
wood,  where  large  congregations  assemble  for  addresses,  con- 
sultations, etc.,  as  well  as  public  worship,  and  publish  an  annual 
report  of  their  proceedings.  They  profess  unlimited  freedom 
of  inquiry. 

CHRISTIANS.  It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  &M  this 
denomination  are  Unitarians.  Many  of  them,  especially  in 
New  England,  are  orthodox  and  evangelical  in  their  creed. 
They  accept  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and  the  Atonement, 
and  only  object  to  the  use  of  the  word  "  person"  in  reference 
tJ  that  sublime  mystery.  These  are  the  views  expressed 
In  their  denominational  organ. 

WINEBRENNARIANS.  This  denomination  is  an  anti- 
slavery  Church,  and  numbers  at  present  in  ten  annual  "  elder- 
ships" about  20,000  members.  The  "  general  eldership"  of 
the  present  year  (1866)  was  important.  They  accepted  the 
of  a  denominational  school  in  Centralia,  Kansas,  and 
47  * 


558  APPENDIX. 

will  organize  it  as  a  denominational  college.    They  will  estab 
lish  another  in  the  Middle   States.     They  also  resolved  to 
establish  a  Sunday  School  paper  and   a  German  paper,  in 
addition  to  the  Church  Advocate,  their  present  organ. 

UNITARIANS.  This  body  has  also  an  organ  in  New 
York  city,  called  the  Christian  Inquirer.  From  a  late  num- 
ber we  copy  the  following  views  of  their  denominational 
place  in  the  Christian  world.  "  We  belong  to  and  are  part 
of  a  great  religious  movement  which  is  sweeping  down 
through  the  centuries,  a  central  and  foremost  stream  of  influ- 
ence it  may  be,  but  still  only  one  of  many  streams  springing 
from  the  same  general  cause  and  flowing  to  the  same  general 
destination  ;  and  whether  we  are  to  empty  our  accumulations 
into  some  other  stream,  or  to  absorb  the  others  into  our 
broader  and  deeper  channel,  we  know  not,  nor  ought  we  to 
care.  We  are  what  we  are  by  the  grace  of  God,  who  has 
raised  us  up  for  his  own  good  purpose,  and  will  do  for  us 
what  he  will ;  and  the  great  thing  for  us  to  do,  is  to  put 
ourselves  entirely  into  his  hands,  and  let  him  use  us  for  his 
own  holy  ends." 

The  Unitarians  of  England,  like  those  of  our  own  country, 
are  divided  into  a  conservative  (Evangelical)  and  radical 
party,  the  latter  being  opposed  to  the  adoption  of  any  creed, 
and,  in  particular,  to  defining  in  any  way  the  Unitarian  doc- 
trine concerning  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ. 

UNIYERSALISTS.  This  denomination  have  recently 
established  Tufts'  College,  at  Somerville,  Massachusetts. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS.  Within  the  last  few  years 
this  intelligent  body  of  Christians  has  put  forth  denomina- 
tional efforts  of  extraordinary  vigor.  They  have  organized 
a  general  Union,  and  raised  vast  sums  for  the  Freedmen,  for 
schools  and  colleges,  and  for  a  Church  Edifice  Fund.  Their 
progress  in  the  Western  States  is  very  rapid.  Congrega- 


APPENDIX.  559 

tionalism,  which,  in  1860,  had  not  a  single  congregation  in 
Missouri,  has  now  a  General  Conference,  with  three  distinct 
associations,  embracing  about  thirty  churches  and  more  than 
thirty  ministers.  The  Congregationalists  in  Missouri,  like 
those  of  the  other  Northern  States,  are  unanimous  in  their 
devotion  to  the  principles  of  freedom,  progress,  and  impartial 
rights.  See  BAPTISTS. 

MORMONS.     There  is  a  singular  analogy  between  the 
origin  and  principles  of  this  sect  and  those   of  the  fanatic 
Anabaptists   of  Munster   in   1535.       Both   claim   prophetic 
powers,    miracles,   revelations,   supplementary  to  and  over 
riding  the  written  word  of  God.     Both  practice  polygamy. 

ARMENIANS.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that,  after  so  many 
centuries  of  alienation,  there  is  now  manifested  a  spirit  of  re- 
union between  this  body  of  Eastern  Christians  and  the  Greek 
Church.  Negotiations  to  this  end  are  now  in  progress. 

GNOSTICS.  This  name  (which  properly  signifies  Scien~ 
tifics)  was  an  attempt  of  the  philosophers  of  the  East  to  blend 
Che  science  of  their  time  ("  science,"  falsely  so  called)  with 
Christianity.  The  same  thing  is  repeated  at  this  time  in 
Germany  and  France,  and  with  like  corrupting  effects. 

RATIONALISTS.  This  is  the  name,  not  so  much  of  an 
organized  sect,  as  of  a  class  of  men  diffused  through  many 
sects,  whose  distinguishing  character  is  that  they  exalt  their 
own  reason  above  the  divine  reason,  as  revealed  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, whether  professing  Christianity  or  not.  In  those  who 
profess  Christianity,  this  spirit  is  most  dangerous  as  well  as 
disingenuous. 

The  twaddle  of  bigotry  and  sectarianism,  it  has  been  justly 
said,  is  bad  enough  ;  but  this  modern  cant  of  freedom  of 
thought,  which  has  degenerated  into  an  utter  disregard  of  all 
positive  truth,  and  sacrifices  the  obvious  import  of  Scripture, 


560  APPENDIX. 

contemptuously   called   its   letter,  for  a   fanciful   something 
termed  its  spirit,  is  infinitely  worse. 

A  a  eclectic  reverence  for  the  word  of  God  is  a  virtual  rejec- 
tion  of  it  as  the  word  of  God.  If  the  New  Testament  be  a 
revelation  from  heaven  for  the  guidance  of  man,  it  must  be 
accepted  in  its  integrity.  Our  first  business  is  to  see  to  it 
that  we  have  the  inspired  word  as  God  gave  it.  In  this  in- 
vestigation we  should  thankfully  accept  all  the  evidence  fur- 
nished by  manuscripts,  by  patristic  quotations,  by  history, 
and  by  the  various  processes  of  a  sound  and  reverential  criti- 
cism. Our  next  duty  is  to  ascertain  the  import  of  the  testi- 
mony, as  borne  by  the  sacred  book.  Here,  again,  we  should 
gladly  avail  ourselves  of  every  aid  which  an  enlightened  and 
pains-takinp-  investigation  can  afford.  But  when  we  have 
reached  the  goal  of  suck  inquiries,  what  then  ?  Shall  we 
proceed  to  eliminate  from  the  book  which  we  have  just  con- 
sented to  receive  as  a  divine  revelation,  all  the  authority  and 
decisiveness  which  should  stamp  such  a  heavenly  communi- 
cation ?  Surely  a  God-inspired  book  should  be  treated  as 
such  ;  and  unless  its  decisions  be  accepted  as  final,  on  all 
matters  on  which  it  has  spoken,  it  is  only  treated  as  we  should 
deal  with  any  other  book.  If  reason  is  to  determine  what 
portions  are  to  be  received  and  what  rejected,  the  supposed 
revelation  adds  nothing  to  us  whatever,  for  reason  we  already 
had.  If  a  revelation  is  not  to  guide  reason,  of  what  use  is  it  ? 
If  reason  is  to  guide  revelation,  man  is  to  be  put  above  God. 
But  verily  this  is  a  reductio  ad  absurdum.  The  fundamental 
idea  of  a  revelation  is  that  of  a  final,  infallible,  and  authorita 
tive  communication  from  our  Maker,  which  is  to  aid  the  im- 
perfections of  reason,  to  correct  her  errors,  and  to  enlarge  the 
sphere  of  her  knowledge — a  communication,  in  fact,  from 
whose  decisions  there  is  no  appeal.  If  we  pay  only  an  eclec- 
tic reverence  to  God's  word,  we  treat  that  blessed  book  as  we 
should  do  the  writings  of  Plato,  or  Cicero,  or  Shakespeare  j 
and  the  Bible  is  of  no  more  use  to  us  than  any  other  tolerably 


APPENDIX.  501 

good  volume  of  human  origin.    See  DEISTS,  LATITUDINARIANS, 
and  ERASTIANS. 

WICKLIFFITES.  The  influence  of  Wickliffe  in  preparing 
he  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  seems  to  demand 
a  more  full  development  of  his  history  and  opinions  than  that 
given  in  the  body  of  this  book.  Happily,  new  light  has  been 
recently  shed  upon  the  subject  by  the  critical  researches  of 
Dr.  Yaughan,  of  Dr.  Boehring,  and  of  Mr.  Shirley  ;  the  lirst,  a 
Congregationalist,  the  second,  a  learned  German  scholar,  and 
the  last,  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England,  the  editor  of 
his  newly-published  works. 

Dr.  John  Wickliffe  was  born  near  Richmond,  in  Yorkshire, 
in  1324,  and  educated  at  Baliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
long  resided,  and  acquired  the  reputation  of  extraordinary 
talents,  piety,  and  scholarship.  In  1361,  he  was  chosen 
Master  of  Baliol  College,  and  the  same  year,  was  presented 
with  the  rectory  of  Fylingham,  in  Lincolnshire.  In  1363,  ho 
received  his  doctor's  degree,  and  the  appointment  of  Professor 
of  Theology  in  the  University.  From  this  date,  his  public 
activity  as  a  Reformer  begins — nine  years  earlier  than  the 
common  date  of  his  appointment,  as  given  by  James,  Le  Bas, 
and  even  by  Dr.  Yaughn  ;  but  it  has  been  fixed  by  Mr. 
Shirley. 

From  1363  to  the  last  days  of  138 1,  the  year  of  his  death, 
in  the  reigns  of  Edward  III.  and  Richard  II..  the  reforming 
labors  of  Wickliffe  were  incessant:  by  his  university  lectures, 
his  numerous  publications,  his  personal  preaching,  his  em- 
ployment of  a  large  body  of  pious  and  faithful  men,  under  the 
name  of  "  Simple  Priests,"  to  preach  in  all  the  villages  of  the 
kingdom,  and,  lastly,  by  the  most  important  labor  of  his  life, 
THE  TRANSLATION  OP  THE  WHOLE  BIBLE  INTO  THE  ENGLISH 
TONGUE.  This  last  has  been  justly  pronounced  the  greatest 
work-in  Anglo-Saxon  history.  True,  the  modern  power  of 
the  press  was  then  unknown,  but  he  was  for  years  surrounded 
by  a  baud  of  active  cop;'i?t?  and  itinorants,  through  whom 

2L 


.rill2  APPENDIX. 

his  writings  and  translations  were  widely  diffused,  notwith- 
standing all  the  efforts  of  his  enemies.  He  never  formally 
left  the  Church  of  Rome,  but  such  was  his  unsparing  exposure 
of  her  errors  and  corruptions,  as  his  mind  advanced  in  the 
knowledge  and  experience  of  the  truth,  that  he  was  repeat- 
edly condemned  as  a  heretic  by  the  clergy  and  Pope,  and 
would  have  been  sacrificed  as  a  martyr  but  for  the  protection 
of  his  powerful  friends  at  court,  and  other  providential  inter- 
position. As  it  was,  he  was  driven  from  the  University  early 
in  1382,  and  spent  the  last  three  years  of  his  life  in  his  rec- 
tory at  Lutterworth,  where  his  translations  of  the  Bible  and 
the  best  of  his  writings  as  a  Reformer  were  produced.  Such 
was  the  resistless  influence  of  these,  not  only  in  England 
(where  it  is  said  that  half  the  nation  embraced  his  views), 
but  on  the  Continent,  in  Germany  and  Bohemia,  that  the 
bigoted  Council  of  Constance,  in  1415,  condemned  not  only 
his  books,  but  ordered  his  very  bones  to  be  dug  up  and  pub- 
licly burned  to  ashes,  a  sentence  actually  ^executed  in  1428. 
But  in  vain  did  his  enemies,  the  Romish  clergy,  thus  insult 
the  memory  of  the  holy  dead  ;  for,  as  old  Fuller  finely  ob- 
serves, "  The  Swift  conveyed  his  ashes  into  the  Avon,  the 
Avon  into  the  Severn,  the  Severn  into  the  narrow  seas,  they 
to  the  main  ocean.  And  thus  they  are  the  emblem  of  his 
doctrine,  which  now  is  dispersed  all  the  world  over." 

As  Wickliffe's  reformatory  opinions  were  progressive,  and 
never  perhaps  attained  to  an  entire  freedom  from  Romish 
errors,  it  may  be  asked  on  what  grounds  Mr.  Crosby  claims 
him  as  a  Baptist.  Our  space  forbids  us  to  state  them  in  full, 
but  briefly  they  are  three.  First,  Wickliffe  adopted  general 
principles  which  invariably  tend  to  Baptist  views,  such  as  the 
sufficiency  and  supremacy  of  the  Scriptures,  the  right  of  all 
men  to  read  them,  and  that  no  doctrine  or  ceremony  is  to  be 
received  in  the  church  which  is  not  sanctioned  by  the  word 
of  God.  "Wise  men,"  he  said,  "  leave  that  as  impertinent 
which  is  not  plainly  expressed  in  Scripture."  On  this  ground 
*•«  rejected  the  authority  of  the  Romish  Church,  Episcopacy, 


APPENDIX.  563 

the  efficacy  of  baptism  to  wash  away  sins,  and  the  perdition 
of  unbaptized  infants — the  very  foundation  on  which  infant 
baptism  then  rested.  Secondly,  he  was  charged  by  contem- 
porary Catholic  writers  expressly  with  the  denial  of  infant 
baptism.  Among  others,  Thomas  Waldensis.  confessor  to 
Henry  V.,  who  had  access  to  his  writings,  and  published  a 
"Fasciculi  Zizaniorum,"  or,  Bundles  of  Tares,  selected  frorar 
them,  says  of  Wicklifie :  "  He  doth  positively  assert  that 
children  are  not  to  be  sacramentally  baptized."  Thirdly,  it  is 
certain  that  many  of  his  followers,  called  Lollards  in  England, 
and  Picards  in  Bohemia,  were  Baptists.  The  latter  sect 
are  thus  described  by  a  Roman  Catholic,  in  a  letter  from 
Bohemia  to  the  learned  Erasmus,  in  1519  :  "They  own  no 
other  authority  than  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments;  they  believe  or  own  little  or  nothing  of  the  sacia- 
ments  of  the  Church  ;  such  as  come  over  to  their  sect  mitsi 
everyone  be  baptized  anew  in  mere  water ;  they  mutually 
salute  one  another  by  the  name  of  brother  and  sister,"  &c. 
The  writer  of  this  letter  admits  that  this  sect  had  been  in 
Bohemia  for  nearly  a  hundred  years,  that  is,  within  thirty-si* 
years  after  the  death  of  Wickliffe,  whose  writings  were  sc 
widely  spread  in  Bohemia  that,  in,  1410,  two  hundred  volume? 
of  them  were  found  and  burnt  in  the  University  of  Prague. 
The  reader  can  now  judge  how  far  this  first  great  English 
Reformer  embraced  the  sentiments  of  the  Baptists,  and  dif- 
fused them  through  Europe. 

GREEK   CHURCH.     See  ARMENIANS,  in  Appendix. 

MAHOMETANISM.  The  computation  of  prophetic  time 
in  the  last  section  of  the  article  under  this  head,  is  evidently 
defective  in  its  data,  and  false  in  its  results.  The  date  from 
which  the  391  years  are  reckoned,  is  not  mentioned,  but  it  is 
evidently  1453,  the  year  when  the  Turks  conquered  Constan 
tinople ;  but  that  was  accomplished  in  their  mid-career  of 
conquest,  rather  than  in  its  beginning.  It  is  plain  that  thoir 


5G4  APPENDIX. 

movement  from  the  Euphrates  is  the  point  of  time  contem- 
plated in  the  prophecy  in  question,  Rev.  ix.,  13-15.  From  the 
year  1300  to  1691,  their  conquests  were  pushed,  but  closed 
with  the  death  of  the  Grand  Yizier  Kinjsrili  IVJustapba,  in 
1691,  just  391  years.  From  that  time  the  best  historians 
date  the  decay  of  the  Turkish  power,  when  it  ceased  to  be  a 
terror  to  Europe.  The  date  of  its  final  fall  does  not  seem  to  be 
given  in  prophecy,  though  it  is  evidently  near  at  hand.  See 
Article  CHRISTIANITY,  in  this  Appendix. 

MANICHAEANS.  It  is  a  very  serious  error  to  confound 
the  Paulicians  with  the  Manichaeans.  It  was  the  ignorance 
or  art  of  their  enemies  that  led  to  this  false  imputation,  which 
has  been  perpetuated  by  so  many  better  men  in  modern  times. 
But  they  themselves  utterly  denied  the  charge,  as  the  learned 
Photius,  in  the  ninth  century,  candidly  admits.  See  PAULI- 
CIANS, in  Appendix. 

ANABAPTISTS:  Those  who  require  a  new  baptism 
when,  for  any  reason,  the  first  is  deemed  invalid.  Thus, 
Paul  is  generally  supposed  to  have  required  the  twelve  dis- 
ciples at  Ephesus  to  be  baptized  anew,  because  of  their 
ignorance  of  the  real  purport  and  design  of  John's  teaching. 
So,  in  the  early  Church,  the  Novatians  and  Donatists  bap- 
tized all  who  joined  them  from  the  Catholic  Church,  on  ac- 
count of  its  alleged  corruptions.  And,  in  like  manner,  the 
Catholics  baptized  anew  those  who  had  been  baptized  by  the 
Arians,  Manichaeans,  and  other  reputed  heretics.  So,  at  this 
time,  the  Greek  Church  requires  a  new  baptism  of  all  who 
unite  with  them,  from  either  Romanists  or  Protestants,  alleg- 
ing, as  one  reason,  that  the  Western  Churches,  by  forsaking 
immersion,  have  lost  baptism.  And  the  rule  is  rigorously 
enforced  on  the  intermarriage  of  royal  families,  as  of  a  prin- 
cess of  Denmark  or  Prussia  with  a  prince  of  Russia. 

In  Church  history,  however,  the  name  of  Anabaptists  is 
generally  applied  to  a  class  of  fanatical  men  who.  at  the  be- 


API  ENDIX.  56& 

ginning  of  the  Reformation  in  the  sixteenth  century,  raised 
violent  disturbances  in  the  centre  of  Europe,  and  brought 
upon  themselves  a  lasting  odium.  These  men,  who  remark 
ably  resembled  the  Mormons  of  our  times,  like  them  rejected 
the  baptism  of  infants,  and  baptized  all  who  adopted  their 
views,  which  were  really  more  political  than  religious.  These 
religio-political  fanatics  were  at  the  time  confounded  with  the 
Baptists,  from  whom,  however,  they  widely  differed,  except 
in  the  single  point  of  baptism.  Hence,  also,  much  confusion 
has  arisen  in  modern  times,  which  needs  to  be  cleared  away. 

Many  modern  historians  have  undertaken  to  do  this,  but 
the  fullest  and  fairest  account  of  the  whole  subject  which  we 
have  seen,  is  found  in  the  "  History  of  the  Netherlands  Re- 
formed Church,"  by  Drs.  Ypeig  and  Dermout,  men  of  the 
highest  standing  in  the  Reformed  Church  of  Holland.  The 
work  occupies  four  octavo  volumes,  and  is  written  with  great 
ability  and  candor.  We  shall  quote  a  few  extracts  from  it, 
sufficient,  we  think,  to  set  this  matter  right. 

"  Since  the  peculiar  history  of  the  Anabaptists  and  Bap- 
tists has  exerted  so  powerful  an  influence  on  the  Reformation 
of  the  Church  in  this  country,  the  nature  of  our  historical 
Tvork  requires  that  we  present  in  its  true  light  the  whole 
tnatter  from  its  origin. 

"  The  fanatical  Anabaptists,  of  whom  we  are  now  to  speak, 
were  originally  from  Germany,  where,  under  the  bishopric 
of  Spiers,  they,  by  a  rebellion  had  made  known  their  dis 
pleasure  at  the  oppressions  of  the  so-called  feudal  system 
This  was  in  the  year  1491.  Since  that  time  they,  by  theii 
revolts,  had  often  caused  anxiety,  and  given  the  Government 
no  little  trouble.  This  continued  until  the  time  of  the  Re- 
formation, when  these  rebels  sought  in  the  new  religion  an 
augmented  power,  and  made  the  most  shameful  misuse  of  it 
to  the  promotion  of  their  harassing  disturbances.  These 
ought  by  no  means  to  be  considered  the  same  as  the  Baptists. 
Let  the  reader  keep  this  distinctly  in  mind  in  the  statement 

which  we  now  make  respecting  them 

48 


566  APPENDIX. 

"Although  there  were  among  the  Romanists  those  who 
were  better  informed,  yet  even  among  these  were  some  under 
the  influence  of  prejudice,  which  does  not  spare  even  the 
learned*  They  would  not  see  that  which  they  might  hare 
seen.  How  evident  it  was  that  although  the  Baptists  ap- 
peared to  agree  exactly  with  the  Anabaptists  in  respect  to 
the  baptismal  question,  the  former  entirely  disapproved  of 
the  course  pursued  by  the  latter.  And  yet  the  Romanists 
without  dissent  agree  in  ascribing  these  things  to  all  the 
Baptists. 

"  We  have  nowhere  seen  clearer  evidences  of  the  injurious 
r'aflueuce  of  prejudice.  Nowhere  have  we  met  with  a  more 
obstinate  unwillingness  to  be  correctly  informed,  and  a  more 
evident  disposition  to  silence  those  who  better  understood  the 
truth  of  the  matter.  Prejudice,  when  once  deeply  imbibed, 
blinds  the  eye,  perplexes  the  understanding,  silences  the 
instincts  of  the  heart,  and  destroys  the  love  of  truth  and 
rectitude." 

"  The  Baptists  are  Protestant  Christians,  entirely  different 
from  the  Anabaptists  in  character.  They  were  descended 
from  the  ancient  Waldenses,  whose  teachings  were  evangeli- 
cal and  tolerably  pure,  and  who  were  scattered  by  severe 
persecutions  in  various  lands,  and  long  before  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  of  the  Church,  were  existing  in  the  Netherlands. 
In  their  flight,  they  came  hither.  In  this  country  and  in  Flan- 
ders, in  Holland  and  Zealand,  they  lived  as  quiet  inhabitants, 
not  intermeddling  with  the  affairs  of  Church  and  State  :  in  the 
villages  tilling  the  land,  and  in  the  cities,  working  at  some 
trade,  or  engaged  in  traffic,  by  which  means  each  one  was  well 
supplied,  and  in  no  respect  burdensome  to  society.  Their 
manner  of  life  was  simple  and  exemplary.  No  great  crime 
was  known  among  them.  Their  religious  teaching  was  sim- 
ple and  pure,  and  was  exemplified  in  their  daily  conduct. — 
In  the  sight  of  the  authorities  they  lived  as  peaceful  citizens, 
obedient,  and  noted  for  their  uprightness,  honesty,  conscien- 
tiousness, temperance  and  godliness.  The  earliest  Romanist 


APPENDIX.  567 

writers,  who  are  willing  to  pay  a  proper  respect  to  the  truth, 
admit  this  to  have  been  the  fact. 

"  From  this  narrative  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how 
greatly  the  Waldenses  of  the  Netherlands,  or  so  called  Ana- 
baptists, were  pleased  when  Luther  and  his  followers  so 
zealously  commenced  the  Reformation.  They  immediately 
made  known  this  approbation.  They  glorified  God,  who  in 
their  time  had  raised  up  brethren  with  whom  they  could  so 
well  unite,  at  least  in  the  main  points.  They  also  immediately 
put  their  hand  to  the  work.  Yet  they  adhered  firmly  to  their 
own  peculiar  views,  especially  respecting  the  baptism  of 
adults,  although  these  were  of  less  importance.  These  wor- 
thy Anabaptists,  or  as  they  may  more  properly  be  called 
Baptists,  were  to  be  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  Nether- 
lands."   The  case  is  thus  summed  up  : 

"  The  course  which  the  work  of  the  Reformation  had  taken 
required  that  we  should  give  an  extended  account,  both  of 
the  Anabaptists  and  of  the  Baptists.  The  former,  as  we  have 
Been,  exerted  a  very  injurious  influence  upon  the  outward 
condition  of  the  Protestant  community.  We  think  that  the 
latter  exerted  an  extensive  internal  influence  upon  all  the 
Protestant  Christians  in  the  Netherlands."  A  conclusion  so 
candid,  from  such  men,  must  command  respect. 

There  is  a  want  of  accuracy  in  the  original  article 
on  this  subject  in  the  body  of  this  work,  which  demands 
correction.  In  the  first  place,  the  definition  is  wrong,  as  it  is 
restricted  to  a  particular  class  of  religionists,  when  it  pro- 
perly extends  to  all,  who  for  any  reason  repeat  baptism, 
in  adult  years.  Immersion  was  in  early  times  the  prac- 
tice of  all  parties.  Besides,  at  the  Reformation  many  rejec- 
ted infant  baptism,  while  they  retained  the  use  of  sprinkling. 

In  the  next  place,  there  were  two  totally  different  classes 
of  men  at  that  period,  as  we  see  above,  who  were  most  injustly 
confounded  under  this  common  name,  and  the  errors  and 
crimes  uf  the  one  wrongfully  imputed  to  the  other.  Mosheim 
himself  does  not,  but  this  article,  though  mostly  taken  from 


APPENDIX. 

Mosheim,  is  so  carelessly  written  as  to  confound 
Once  more,  in  the  same  way,  the  Peasants'  War  in  1525  is 
first  charged  upon  them  indiscriminately  and  solely  ;  though 
it  is  afterward  acknowledged  that  it  was  not  a  religious  war 
at  all,  but  a  war  for  their  civil  rights  and  liberties,  against  the 
intolerable  oppressions  of  the  feudal  system,  and  that  the 
Anabaptists  (so  called)  had  no  more  to  do  with  it  than  others — 
Lutherans  and  Roman  Catholics. 

LOLLARDS.     See  WICKLIFFITES,  in  Appendix. 
PETROBRUSIANS.     See  WALDENSES,  in  Appendix. 

PAULICIANS.  It  is  an  error  in  many  writers  to  say, 
as  is  said  in  the  article  under  this  head,  in  the  body  of  the 
work,  that  the  Paulicians  were  a  branch  of  the  Manichaeans. 
Dr.  Allix,  Milner,  and  Jones,  not  to  mention  others,  have 
cleared  them  of  this  calumny.  They  were  Christians  of  an 
evangelical  faith  and  spirit,  who  kept  alive  the  flame  of  true 
piety  in  Europe  in  the  middle  ages.  See  WALDENSES  and 
MANICHAEANS,  in  the  Appendix. 

MONOPHYSITES.  The  reader  will  find  himself  repaid 
for  consulting  on  this  point  the  articles  ARMENIANS,  NESTO- 
BIANS,  JACOBITES,  MARONILES,  EUTYCIIIANS,  COPTS,  MEL- 
CHITES,  MONOTHELITES,  and  ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH. 

PAGANS.  See  CHRISTIANITY,  in  the  Appendix,  for  some 
important  general  views  of  their  condition  and  prospects. 

BRAMINS  :  BUDDHISTS.  See  CHRISTIANITY,  in  this 
Appendix. 

Since  the  great  struggle  of  1857,  in  India,  to  cast  off  the 
British  dominion,  and  expel  Christianity,  a  great  change  has 
come  over  the  people.  It  is  felt  that  the  power  of  their  gods, 
to  whom  they  looked  for  success  in  that  struggle,  is  gone,  or 


APPENDIX.  569 

at  least  that  it  is  now  inferior,  even  on  their  ancient  soil,  to 
the  God  of  the  Christians.  Hence  Braminism  is  shorn  of  a 
great  part  of  its  former  prestige,  and  there  is  growing  up  a 
disposition  to  hear  Christian  missionaries,  and  read  Christian 
books  witb  new  respect  and  attention.  Thousands  are  giving 
up  their  old  belief  and  worship  ;  caste  is  broken  with  impu- 
nity ;  and  every  thing  betokens  the  speedy  downfall  of  that 
mighty  system  of  error. 

PAGANS  OF  CHINA.  The  most  astonishing  changes 
have  taken  place  in  China  within  the  last  twenty  years. 
Before  1845,  no  Christian  was  permitted  to  set  foot  upon  the 
soil,  beyond  the  Hong  factories.  Now,  the  whole  empire  is 
open  to  the  gospel.  Toleration  is  guaranteed  by  treaty  with 
foreign  nations,  and  Christian  missions  (Protestant)  are  in 
successful  operation  in  the  principal  seaports,  the  interior 
cities,  and  in  Pekin  itself,  under  the  eye  of  the  Emperor. 
Chinese  translations  of  the  Scriptures  are  widely  diffused, 
and  many  evangelical  churches  planted. 

PAGANS  OF  JAPAN.  After  two  centuries  of  inter- 
diet,  Christianity  has  again  gained  a  footing  in  Japan,  and 
several  Protestant  missions  have  been  established. 

PAGANS  OF  AFRICA.  On  this  great  continent  ex- 
plorations are  going  on  of  a  most  important  nature,  and 
Christianity  is  pressing  in  on  all  sides. 

PAGANS  OF  MADAGASCAR.  Since  that  article  was 
first  written,  there  has  been  a  most  important  change  in  the 
island  in  favor  of  Christianity.  It  is  not  only  tolerated,  but 
encouraged  by  the  Court.  The  missionaries  have  returned, 
and  been  welcomed  with  the  liveliest  demonstration  of  joy. 
Churches  have  been  established,  the  Scriptures  circulated, 
and  converts  multiplied.  Evangelical  Christianity  is  now  in 
the  ascendant. 


APPENDIX. 

PAGANS  OF  POLYNESIA.  Australia  is  filling  up 
with  a  civilized  and  Christian  population.  New  Zealand 
has  received  Christian  missionaries.  The  gospel  has  signally 
triumphed,  in  overthrowing  idolatry  in  the  Society  Islands, 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  the  Friendly,  Fejee,  and  Marquesas 
Islands,  and  others,  whose  names  have  not  yet  become  famil 
iar  to  Christendom. 

PAGANS  OF  AMERICA.  The  number  of  Indians  of 
the  various  tribes  within  the  territory  of  the  United  States, 
is  now  estimated  at  three  hundred  thousand.  Most  of  these 
are  yet  Pagan.  The  number  professing  Christianity  is  not 
far  from  one  hundred  thousand.  Beyond  the  United  States, 
the  number  of  the  Pagan  population  is  unknown. 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS.  It  is  generally  anticipated  that 
a  crisis  must  soon  occur  in  the  government  of  the  Pope  at 
Rome.  By  the  convention  of  September  15,  1865,  Louis 
Napoleon  engaged  to  withdraw  his  troops  from  Rome,  and  in 
his  recent  manifesto,  he  declares  that  "  this  convention  shall 
be  faithfully  executed,"  though  "  the  emperor  leaves  there,  as 
a  guarantee  of  the  security  of  the  Holy  Father,  the  protection 
of  France."  This  language  can  only  mean  protection  from 
personal  violence,  while  .the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope  ia 
left  to  its  fall.  It  was  the  interference  of  France  that  restored 
the  Pope's  temporal  power,  by  subverting  the  Roman  Re- 
public of  Mazzini  in  1849,  and  for  the  last  seventeen  years 
French  troops  have  kept  guard  at  his  palace  gates  ;  though  a 
Swiss  body  guard  and  a  few  Roman  soldiers  have  helped  to 
keep  up  some  show  of  sovereign  power.  The  withdrawal 
of  the  French  regiments,  now  near  at  hand,  will,  therefore, 
inevitably  be  followed  by  some  great  change  in  his  condition 
as  one  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe.  As  Italy  has  now 
become  a  unit  its  king,  Victor  Emmanuel,  will  undoubtedly 
be  welcomed  to  Rome  as  the  grand  old  capital  of  the  kingdom, 
and  the  P^pf  with  his  consistory  of  Cardinals,  will  be  obliged 


APPENDIX.  571 

« 

to  accept  such  arrangements  for  the  future  as  they  may  be 
able  to  make  with  him.  This  would,  of  course,"  bring  to  an 
end  that  strange  theocracy — the  Papal  sovereignty — at  once 
the  oldest  and  the  feeblest  government  in  Christendom. 

The  loss  of  the  Pope's  temporal  power,  is  ot  little  conse- 
quence to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  itself;  but  only  as  it 
bears  upon  the  future  fortunes  of  that  Church,  of  which  the 
Pope  is  the  visible  head,  the  centre  of  the  grand  arch  of  its 
unity.  This  bearing  will  depend  very  much  upon  the  situation 
of  the  Pope  after  his  temporal  power  has  fallen.  There  is  here 
a  very  serious  complication  Victor  Emmanuel,  though  a 
Catholic,  is  under  the  ban  of  the  Pope,  and  is  excommuni- 
cated from  the  church.  To  such  a  sovereign  the  Pope  cannot 
surrender  his  temporal  authority,  or  even  intrust  the  guar-. 
dianship  of  his  person  ;  nor  can  he  enter  into  any  relations 
of  amity  and  concord  with  him.  He  must  either  recall  his 
interdict,  or  retire  to  a  distance  from  Rome,  whenever  the 
king  shall  enter  its  gates.  To  do  the  former  will  be  a  great 
humiliation,  and  to  do  the  latter  will  strip  him  of  his  prestige 
and  change,  perhaps  destroy,  what  he  delights  to  style  "the 
centre  of  Christendom."  Pius  IX.,  has  therefore  to  withdraw 
from  Italy,  and  endure  for  himself  the  humiliation  of  the 
Pontificate,  until  the  Catholic  sovereigns  of  Europe  shall  be 
compelled  by  their  pious  subjects  to  reinstate  him  in  indepen- 
dence at  Rome.  The  vital  question  is,  will  they  be  likely  to 
do  this  ?  It  is  not  surprising  that  in  such  a  crisis  the  greatest 
solicitude  is  expressed  in  every  part  of  Catholic  Europe. 
The  Archbishop  of  Ireland,  Dr.  Cullen  (now  a  cardinal)  is  in 
dismay,  and  thinks  that  within  six  months  "  his  Holiness  will 
be  reduced  to  such  a  condition  that  he  may  not  know  where 
to  turn  his  steps."  The  recent  complete  overthrow  of  Austria 
by  Prussia,  he  says,  has  left  no  Catholic  power  able  to  sup- 
port the  Pope  as  a  temporal  sovereign. 

To  add  to  the  consternation  of  Rome,  the  Italian  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  June  9,  1866,  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote, 
adopted  the  first  article  of  the  bill  for  the  suppression  of  all 


572  APPENDIX. 

the  monastic  institutions  throughout  Italy.  Since  thea,  \ve 
believe,  the"  whole  bill  has  been  adopted,  and  gone  into 
effect.  t 

Protestants,  however,  should  not  be  too  sanguine  about  the 
effect  of  all  these  changes  upon  the  Roman  Church,  and  its 
hold  upon  the  minds  of  men.  The  fortunes  of  the  Pope  are 
not  the  fortunes  of  the  Church,  however  closely  the  two  may 
be  connected  together.  The  name  of  the  Pope  may  be 
stricken  from  the  list  of  European  sovereigns,  and  no  shock 
be  given  to  the  Roman  Cathdlic  faith.  Indeed,  that  faith 
might  still  control  its  votaries,  if  there  were  no  Pope  to  be  its 
visible  representative.  But  the  fall  of  the  temporal  papacy 
will  be  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  Papal 
Church.  The  crisis  is  full  of  interest,  and  may  well  be 
watched  with  intense  solicitude  alike  by  the  Protestant  and 
Catholic  world.  It  may  give  complexion  to  the  future  his- 
tory of  mankind. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  this  country,  consists  (since 
July,  1850)  of  seven  ecclesiastical  provinces,  at  the  head  of 
each  of  which  is  an  archbishop :  namely,  Baltimore,  New 
York,  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco, 
and  Oregon,  of  which  Baltimore  ranks  first.  The  number  of 
priests  exceeds  two  thousand  five  hundred  ;  the  number  of 
the  population  connected  with  the  Church  is  estimated  at  from 
four  to  five  million. 

National  Councils  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  Are  con- 
vened by  order  of  the  Pope,  and  consist  of  all  the  Bishops 
of  the  country  iu  which  they  are  held.  In  the  Old  World, 
they  are  very  rare,  as  in  most  countries,  the  meetings  of  the 
Bishops  are  made  dependent  upon  the  express  permission  of 
the  Government.  Only  the  Protestant  government  of  England 
puts  no  obstacle  in  the  way.  In  the  United  States,  of  course, 
it  is  the  same.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  Roman  Church 
has  this  liberty  only  under  the  free  political  institutions 
which  the  Pope  has  never  ceased  to  condemn. 

At  present  but  a  small  portion  of  the  colored  population  of 


APPENDIX.  573 

this  country  is  under  the  influence  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  ;  but  it  is  understood  that  one-object  of  the  present 
National  Council  of  that  Church,  at  Baltimore,  is  to  devise 
measures  for  winning  over  that  class  so  lately  freed  from 
bondage,  and  now  recognized  as  American  citizens. 

WALDENSES.  It  seems  to  be  a  serious  mistake  into 
which  some  popular  writers  have  fallen,  who  represent  the 
Waldenses  as  originating  in  France  about  the  year  1160,  and 
deriving  their  name  from  the  celebrated  Peter  Waldo.  The 
evidence  is  now  ample,  that  so  far  from  being  a  new  sect  at 
that  period,  they  had  existed  under  various  names  as  a  dis- 
tinct class  of  dissenters  from  the  established  churches  of 
Greece  and  Rome  in  the  earliest  ages.  It  is  an  egregious 
error  to  suppose  that  when  Christianity  was  taken  into  alli- 
ance with  the  State,  by  the  Emperor  Constantino,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourth  century,  all  the  orthodox  churches  were 
so  ignorant  of  the  genius  of  their  religion,  as  to  consent  to 
the  corruption  of  a  worldly  establishment. 

Crantz  (in  his  History  of  the  United  Brethren)  says, 
"  These  ancient  Christians  who,  besides  the  several  names  of 
reproach  given  them,  were  at  length  denominated  Waldenses, 
from  one  of  their  most  eminent  teachers,  Peter  Waldo,  date 
their  origin  from  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  ;  when 
cue  Leo,  at  the  great,  revolution  in  religion  under  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  opposed  the  innovations  of  Sylvester, 
Bishop  of  Rome." 

The  Cathari,  or  Puritan  churches  of  the  Novatians,  also  had. 
at  that  very  period  (about  A.  D.  325)  been  flourishing  as  a 
distinct  communion  for  more  than  seventy  years,  all  over  the 
empire;  maintaining  by  the  acknowledgment  even  of  their 
enemies,  the  self-styled  Catholics,  the  integrity  of  the  true 
faith,  together  with  the  purity  of  discipline  and  the  power  of 
godliness,  which  had  generally  disappeared  from  the  Catholic 
churches.  These  Puritans  being  exposed  to  severe  and  san- 
guinary perst'cutions  for  dissent,  from  age  to  age,  were  com- 


APPENDIX. 

pelled  to  shelter  themselves  from  the  desolating  storm  in  re- 
tirement ;  and  when  at  intervals  they  reappear  on  the  pages 
of  contemporary  history,  and  their  principles  are  propagated 
with  new  boldness  and  success,  they  are  styled  a  new  sect, 
and  receive  a  new  name  from  their  enemies,  though  in  reality 
they  are  the  same  people. 

The  same  great  principles-  of  attachment  to  the  word  of 
God,  and  determined  adherence  to  the  simplicity  of  its  doc- 
trine, discipline,  institutions,  and  worship,  in  opposition  to 
the  innovations  of  a  secular  spirit  and  policy  on  the  one  hand, 
and  of  false  philosophy  or  of  pretended  apostolic  tradition  on 
the  other,  may  be  traced  under  the  name  of  Novatians,  Dona- 
tists,  Luciferians,  and  JErians,  from  the  third  to  the  seventh 
centuries.  They  reappear  in  the  Paulicians,  who  have  been 
falsely  accused  of  Mauichaeism,  but  who,  from  the  middle  of 
the  seventh  to  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  worthily  sus- 
tained by  their  preaching,  their  lives,  and  their  martyrdoms, 
their  claim  of  being  the  genuine  descendants  of  the  primitive 
churches. 

From  Asia  Minor  they  spread  themselves  over  Europe, 
through  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Epirus,  Bulgaria,  Sclavonia, 
Sicily,  Lombardy,  Liguria,  and  Milan ;  whence,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  they  entered  into  France. 
The  first  discovery  of  a  congregation  of  this  kind  in  that 
country,  was  at  Orleans,  A.  D.  10 IT.  A  Catholic  council 
was  immediately  convened,  and  the  Paulician  missionaries, 
with  their  converts,  among  whom  were  many  respectable 
citizens  and  several  of  the  regular  clergy,  were  all  burnt  alive. 
Other  advocates  of  the  doctrine  were  discovered  in  Languedoc, 
others  in  Picardy  and  Suabia.  They  were  called  in  France 
Bougres  or  Bulgarians,  Tisserands  or  Weavers,  Bos  Homos 
or  Good  Men. 

They  soon  spread  through  Germany,  where  they  were  called 
by  the  old  name  of  Cathari,  or,  by  corruption,  Gazari,  i.  e. 
Puritans.  In  Italy,  the  same  people  were  called  Paterines, 
Josephists,  Arnoldists,  (and  Fratricelli.)  As  early  as  the 


APPENDIX..  575 

fear  1100,  it  appears  they  began  to  be  called  Waldenses, 
sixty  years  before  Peter  Waldo.  Their  principles  were 
powerfully  advocated,  and  extended  among  the  most  intelli- 
gent classes  in  Languedoc  and  Proveuce,  from  1110  to  1168, 
by  the  celebrated  Peter  de  Bruys  and  Henry,  his  successor ; 
from  whom  they  received  the  name  of  Petrobrusians  and 
Henricians.  From  the  places  where  they  flourished  they  were 
called  Toulbusians,  Albigenses,  and  afterward  Poor  Men  of 
Lyons,  and  Leonists.  They  were  condemned  by  a  council  at 
Toulouse  in  1119,  and  again  by  the  great  Lateran  council  at 
Rome,  in  1139.  In  1160,  some  of  them  crossed  from  Gascouy 
to  England,  where  they  were  called  Pophlicians  and  Publi- 
cans, corruptions  of  the  original  name,  Paulicians.  About 
this  time  arose  the  celebrated  Peter  Waldo,  of  Lyons,  whose 
labors,  learning,  zeal,  and  liberality,  greatly  extended  theif 
principles ;  in  consequence  of  which  many  writers,  both 
Catholic  and  Protestant,  have  most  erroneously  regarded 
him  as  the  parent  and  founder  of  the  proper  Waldenses.  Mr. 
Robinson,  however,  has  shown  that  this  name  had  a  much 
earlier  origin,  that  it  signifies,  "  inhabitants  of  the  valleys," 
and  that  it  was  applied  to  the  persecuted  people  of  whom  we 
have  spoken,  simply  for  the  reason  that  great  multitudes  of 
them  made  their  residence  in  the  valleys  of  the  Alps  and  of 
the  Pyrenees,  where,  age  after  age,  they  found  an  asylum 
from  the  tyranny  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  This  view  of  the 
matter,  also,  is  supported  by  the  testimony  of  their  own 
historians,  Pierre  Gillies,  Perrin,  Leger,  Sir  Samuel  Morland, 
and  Dr.  Allix.  The  names  imposed  on  them  by  their  adver- 
saries, they  say,  have  been  intended  to  vilify  and  ridicule 
them,  or  to  represent  them  as  new  and  different  sects. 

Their  enemies  confirm  their  great  antiquity.  Reineriu3 
Saccho,  the  inquisitor,  admits  that  the  Waldenses  flourished 
five  hundred  years  before  Peter  Waldo.  This  carries  us  back 
to  the  year  660,  the  time  of  the  appearance  of  the  Paulicians. 
or  rather  of  their  great  revival  and  increase  under  the  labors 
of  Constantine  Sylvanus  Indeed,  there  is  not  wantii  g  evi- 


576  APPENDIX. 

dcMce  to  show  that  churches  of  the  Puritan  faith  existed  at 
that  time  in  the  West,  as  well  as  in  the  East.  In  the  year 
553,  nine  bishops  of  Italy  and  Switzerland  openly  refused 
communion  with  the  Pope  of  Rome,  and  the  churches  under 
their  care  persisted  in  their  dissent.  To  say  nothing  of  the 
labors  of  those  noble  reformers  in  the  botom  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  Paulinus  of  Aquileia,  in  the  eighth  century,  Claude 
of  Turin  in  the  ninth,  the  council  af  Rheims  in  th'e  tenth,  and 
Berenganus,  archdeacon  of  Angers,  in  the  eleventh,  which 
yet  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  opening  the  eyes  of  men 
to  the  corruptions  of  Rome  ;  if  we  will  believe  the  testimony 
of  the  suffering  Waldenses  themselves,  their  doctrine  and 
discipline  had  been  preserved  in  all  its  purity  and  efficacy 
from  the  days  of  the  primitive  martyrs,  in  Spain,  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  and  especially  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont. 

The  learned  Dr.  Allix,  in  his  "  History  of  the  Churches  of 
Piedmont,"  gives  this  account : — "  That  for  three  hundred 
years  or  more,  the  bishop  of  Rome  attempted  to  subjugate 
the  church  of  Milan  under  his  jurisdiction,  and  at  last,  the 
interest  of  Rome  grew  too  potent  for  the  church  of  Milan, 
planted  by  one  of  the  disciples,  insomuch  that  the  bishop  and 
the  people,  rather  than  own  its  jurisdiction,  retired  to  the 
valleys  of  Lucerne  and  Angrogne,  and  thence  were  called 
Vallenses,  Wallenses,  or  The  People  in  the  Valleys." 

M.  Sismondi,  in  his  late  History  of  the  Crusades  against  the 
Albigenses,  says,."  Those  very  persons  who  punished  the  secta- 
ries with  frightful  torments,  have  alone  taken  ituponthemselves 
to  make  us  acquainted  with  their  opinions,  allowing  at  the 
same  time  that  they  had  been  transmitted  in  Gaul  from  gener- 
ation to  generation,  almost  from  the  origin  of  Christianity 
We  cannot  be  astonished  (he  adds)  if  they  have  represented 
them  to  us  with  all  those  characters  which  might  render  them 
the  most  monstrous,  mingled  with  all  the  fables  which  would 
serve  to  irritate  the  minds  of  the  people  against  those  who 
professed  them.  Nevertheless,  amidst  many  puerile  and 
calumnious  tales,  it  is  still  easy  to  recognize  the  principles  of 


DIX.  577 

the  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  among  the  heretics 
who  are  designated  by  the  name  of  Yaudois  or  Albigeois." 

Dr.  Allix,  speaking  of  the  Paterines,  some  of  whom,  disci- 
ples of  Gundulf,  one  of  their  teachers,  went  from  Italy  to  the 
Netherlands,  where  they  were  thrown  into  prison,  says,  "  Here, 
then,  we  have  found  a  body  of  men  in  Italy  before  the  year 
1026,  five  hundred  years  before  the  Reformation,  who  believed 
contrary  to  the  opinions  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  who 
highly  condemned  her  errors."  Mr.  Jones  adds,  "  Atto, 
bishop  of  Verceulli,  had  complained  of  such  people  eighty 
years  before,  and  so  had  others  before  him,  and  there  is  the 
greatest  reason  to  believe  they  had  always  existed  in  Italy, 
It  is  observable  that  those  alluded  to  by  Dr.  Allix  were 
brought  to  light  by  mere  accident."  About  the  year  1040, 
the  Paterines  had  become  very  numerous  at  Milan,  which 
was  their  principal  residence ;  and  in  1259,  some  of  their 
churches  in  other  Italian  cities,  we  are  informed  by  Reiner- 
fus  the  inquisitor,  contained  from  five  to  fifteen  hundred 
members.  Their  churches  were  organized  into  sixteen  com- 
partments or  associations.  They  had  no  connection  with  the 
Catholic  Church,  which  they  regarded  as  Antichrist  from  the 
time  of  Pope  Sylvester.  Now,  when  we  reflect  that  the 
Paterines,  as  well  as  the  Paulicians,  both  in  principles  and 
practice,  were  the  same  people  as  the  Waldenses,  or 
Leonists,  we  shall  not  wonder  at  the  following  remarka- 
ble words  of  Reinerius  concerning  the  latter  : 

"  Of  all  the  sects  which  have  been,  or  now  exist,  none  is 
more  injurious  to  the  Church,  (i.e.  of  Rome,)  for  three  rea- 
sons:  1.  Because  it  is  more  ancient.  Some  aver  their  exist- 
ence from  the  time  of  Sylvester ;  others  from  the  very  time 
of  the  apostles.  2.  Because  it  is  so  universal.  There  is 
scarcely  any  country  into  which  this  sect  has  not  crept.  And 
3.  Because  all  other  heretics  excite  horror  by  the  greatness 
of  thoir  bl.isphemies  against  God  ;  but  these  have  a  great 
appearance  of  piety,  as  they  live  justly  before  men,  believe 
rightly  all  things  concerning  God,  and  confess  all  the  articles 
49*  2M 


578  APPENDIX. 

which  are  contained  in  the  creed  ;  only  they  hate  and  revile 
the  Church  of  Rome,  and  in  their  accusations  are  easily  be- 
lieved by  the  people." 

Such  a  concession,  from  such  a  source,  speaks  volumes. 
Here  then  is  a  succession  of  faithful  men,  whose  apostolic 
origin,  perpetuity,  universal  though  often  hidden  diffusion, 
general  orthodoxy,  evangelical  simplicity  and  sanctity  of 
character,  is  admitted  by  the  Church  of  Rome  herself;  a 
succession  of  faithful  men,  organized,  too,  into  Christian 
churches,  claiming  to  be  the  true  successors  of  the  apostles, 
protesting  against  all  the  corruptions  of  the  patriarchate 
and  the  papacy,  and  for  this  reason  subject  to  continual  per- 
secution from  both,  through  the  hands  of  the  secular  powers 
to  which  they  are  allied ;  a  Church  built  not  on  St.  Peter 
alone,  but  on  the  entire  foundation  of  the  apostles  and  proph- 
ets, Jesus  Christ  himself  being  the  chief  corner  stone,  and 
against  which  the  gates  of  hell  have  not  been  able  to  prevail. 
May  we  not  say  then,  in  the  language  of  Revelation,  "  Here 
is  the  patience  and  faith  of  the  saints  ?  These  are  they  that 
keep  the  commandments  of  God,  and  the  faith  of  Jesus  ?•' 
Rev.  xiv.  12. 

It  also  appears  that  the  recesses  of  the  Alps  and  the  Pyr- 
enees were  distinguished  retreats  of  these  persecuted  Chris- 
tians in  the  darkest  ages  of  the  Church.  Or,  as  Mr.  Robin- 
son observes,  in  his  Ecclesiastical  Researches,  "  Greece  was 
the  parent,  Spain  and  Navarre  the  nurses,  France  the  step- 
mother, and  Savoy  (i.  e.  Piedmont)  the  jailor  of  this  class  of 
Christians  called  Waldenses." 

Their  principles. — From  the  united  attestation  of  their 
enemies  and  their  own  confessions  of  faith,  we  learn  that  the 
ancient  Waldenses  were  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  following 
points  : — 

1.  Their  attachment  to  the  Scriptures. — They  held  that 
the  Holy  Scriptures  are  the  only  source  of  faith  and  religion, 
without  regard  to  the  authority  of  the  fathers  and  tradition, 
ilthough  they  principally  used  the  New  Testament,  yet,  aa 


APPENDIX.  579 

Usher  proves,  they  regarded  the  Old  also  as  canonical  Scrip- 
ture. "  They  translated  the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  says 
Reinerius,  "into  the  vulgar  tongues,  and  spake  and  taught 
according  to  them."  From  their  greater  use  of  the  New 
Testament,  however,  as  Yenema  observes,  their  adversaries' 
took  occasion  to  charge  them  with  despising  the  Old. 
"  Hence,  whatever  a  doctor  of  the  Church  teaches,"  says 
,  Reinerius.  "which  he  does  not  prove  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment, they  consider  it  as  entirely  fabulous — contrary  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  (Romish)  Church.  He  adds,  "  I  have  heard  and 
seen  a  certain  unlearned  rustic,  who  recited  the  book  of  Job, 
word  by  word,  and  many  who  perfectly  knew  the  New  Testa- 
ment." This  is  high  praise. 

2.  Their  Scriptural  simplicity,  and  soundness  of  belief. — . 
Their  adversaries  frequently  acknowledge  this  ;  see  the  testi- 
mony of  the  inquisitor  above.  It  is  amply  confirmed  also  by 
their  own  authentic  monuments  and  confessions  of  faith,  of 
which  several  are  printed  at  length  in  Jones's  History  of  the 
Church,  and  other  standard  works. 

From  a  confession  of  their  faith,  in  1120,  we  extract  the 
following  particulars  : — "  (1  )  That  the  Scriptures  teach  that 
there  is  one  God,  almighty,  all-wise,  and  all-good,  who  made 
all  things  by  his  goodness  ;  for  he  formed  Adam  in  his  own 
image  and  likeness  :  but  that  by  the  envy  of  the  devil  sin 
entered  into  the  world,  and  that  we  are  sinners  in  and  by 
Adam.  (2.)  That  Christ  was  promised  to  our  fathers,  who 
received  the  law  :  that  so,  knowing  by  the  law  their  unright- 
eousness and  insufficiency,  they  might  desire  the  coming  of 
Christ,  to  satisfy  for  their  sins,  and  accomplish  the  law  by 
himself.  (3.)  That  Christ  was  born  in  the  time  appointed 
by  God  the  Father  ;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  time  when  all 
iniquity  abounded,  that  he  might  show  us  grace  and  mercy, 
as  being  faithful.  (4.)  That  Christ  is  our  life,  truth,  peace, 
and  righteousness  ;  as  also  our  pastor,  advocate,  and  priest, 
who  died  for  the  salvation  of  all  who  believe,  and  is  risen  for 
our  justification.  (5.)  That  there  is  no  mediator  and  advo- 


580  APPENDIX. 

cate  with  God  the  Father,  save  Jesus  Christ.  (6.)  That 
after  this  ljfe  there  are  only  two  places,  the  one  for  the  saved 
and  the  other  for  the  damned.  (7.)  That  we  ought  to  honor 
the  secular  powers  by  subjection,  ready  obedience,  and  pay- 
ing of  tribute." 

3.  Their  purity  and  excellence  of  life  and  manners. — 
Though  often  accused  of  the  most  abominable  crimes,  the 
whole  evidence  goes  to  show  that  these  accusations  were  vile 
calumnies,  invented  for    party  purposes  by  their  malignant 
enemies,  the  papal  priests.      Indeed,  an  ancient  inquisitor 
confesses  that  "  these  heretics  are  known  by  their  manners 
and  conversation,  for  they  are  orderly  and  modest  in  their 
behaviour  and  deportment.     They  avoid  all  appearance  of 
pride  in  their  dress ;  they  neither  indulge  in  finery,  nor  are 
they  mean  and  ragged.     They  avoid  commerce,  that  they  may 
be  free  from  deceit  and  falsehood.     They  get  their  livelihood 
by  manual  industry.     They  are  not  anxious  about  amassing 
riches,  but  content  themselves  with  the  necessaries  of  life. 
They  are  chaste,  temperate,  and  sober.     They  abstain  from 
anger.     Even  when  they  work,  they  either  learn  or  teach, 
etc."     Seisselius,  archbishop  of  Turin,  also  admits,  "  Theii 
beresy  excepted,  they  generally  live  a  purer  life  than  other 
Christians." 

4.  Their  enlightened  fervor,  courage,  and  zeal. — Reineriu.s 
assigns  as  one  cause  of  their  great  increase,  their  great  zeal. 
"  All  of  them,  men  and  women,  night  and  day,  never  cease  from 
teaching  and  learning.     The  first  lesson,"  he  adds,  "which 
the  Waldenses  tea.ch  those  whom   they  bring  over  to  their 
party,  is  to  instruct  them  what  manner  of  persons  the  disci- 
ples of  Christ  ought  to  be  ;  and  this  they  do  by  the  doctrine 
of  the  evangelists  and   apostles/ saying  that  those  only  are 
the  followers  of  the  apostles  who  imitate  their   manner  of 
life."     Hence, 

5.  Their  steady  opposition  to  all  corruptions  and  antichris- 
tian  usurpations. — "  The  first  error  of  the  Waldenses,"  saye 
an  ancient  inquisitor,  "  is,  that  they  affirm  that  the  Church  of 


APPENDIX.  585 

Rome  is  not  the  church  of  Jesus  Christ,  but  an  assembly.of 
ungodly  men,  and  that  she  has  ceased  from  being  the  true 
church  from  the  time  of  Pope  Sylvester,  at  which  time  the 
poison  of  temporal  advantages  was  cast  into  the  Church." 
They  rejected  images,  crosses,  relics,  legends,  traditions, 
uricular  confession,  indulgences,  absolutions,  clerical  celibacy ; 
orders,  titles,  tithes,  vestments,  monkery,  masses,  and  praye:s 
for  the  dead  ;  purgatory,  invocation  of  saints,  and  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  ;  holy  water,  festivals,  processions,  pilgrimages, 
vigils,  Lent ;  pretended  miracles,  exorcisms,  consecrations, 
confirmations,  extreme  unction,  canonization,  and  the  like. 
They  condemned  the  use  of  liturgies,  especially  in  an  un- 
known tongue.  They  condemned  the  mystical  or  allegorical 
interpretations  of  Scripture.  They  condemned,  most  of  all, 
the  wicked  lives  of  both  people  and  clergy  in  the  worldly 
communion  of  Rome. 

6.  Their  enlightened  views   of  liberty  of  conscience. — 
"They  affirm,"  says  the  inquisitor,  "that  no  man  ought  to 
be  forcibly  compelled  in  matters  of  faith."     On  this  point,  as 
also  on  the  next,  they  are  far  in  advance  of  the  reformers, 
Luther  and  Calvin. 

7.  Their  just  ideas  of  the  nature  and  character  of  a  church 
of  Christ. — "  That  is  the  Church  of  Christ  which  bears  the 
pure  doctrine  of  Christ,  and  observes  the  ordinances  instituted 
by  him,  in  whatever  place  it  exists."     "  The  sacraments  of 
the  Church  of  Cnrist  are  two,  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  in  the  latter  Christ  has  instituted  the  receiving  in  both 
kinds,  both  for  priests  and  people."     "  We  consider  the  sacra- 
ments as  signs  of  holy  things,  or  as  the  visible  emblems  of 
invisible    blessings.     We    regard     it   as   proper,    and   «ven 
necessary,  that  believers  use  these  symbols  when  it  can  be 
done.     Notwithstanding  which,  we  maintain  that  believers 
may  be  saved  without  these  signs,  when   they  have  neither 
place  nor  opportunity  of  observing  them."     Hence  Seisseli- 
UK  remarks,  "  They  say  that  they  alone  observe  the  evangelic 
ai>/J  apostolic  doctrine,  on  which  account,  by  an  intolerable 

49* 


582  APPENDIX. 

impudence,  they  usurp  the  name  of  the  Catholic  Church  " 
Koinerius  also  observes,  "  They  declare  themselves  to  be  the 
apostles'  successors,  to  have  apostolical  authority,  and  the 
keys  of  binding  and  loosing.  They  say  that  a  man  is  then 
fir^t  baptized  when  he  is  received  into  their  community  :  some 
of  them  hold  that  baptism  is  of  no  advantage  to  infants,  be- 
cause they  cannot  actually  believe."  On  the  whole,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  they  were,  and  that,  too,  on  principle,  dissenters,  not 
from  the  Church  of  Rome  only,  but  from  all  national  established 
cli arches.  Their  church  officers,  Reinerius  says,  were  bishops, 
elders,  and  deacons  ;  but  the  distinction  between  their  bishops 
and  other  elders  seems  to  have  been  only  that  the  former 
were  the  official  pastors  of  the  churches. 

Tbat  they  understood  and  practiced  immersion  as  baptism 
is  evident,  but  whether  they  generally  practiced  infant  bap- 
tism has  long  been  a  matter  of  dispute.  The  words  of 
Reinerius  seem  to  imply  that  in  his  time  (1250)  they  were 
of  different  opinions  on  this  point.  The  modern  Waldenses 
in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont  do  practise  it;  but  they  have  so 
changed  in  many  points,  since  their  amalgamation  with  the 
Calvinists  at  the  Reformation,  having  also  received  their 
pastors  from  them  since  1663,  that  nothing  decisive  can  be 
hence  inferred.  Dr.  Murdock  thinks  that  the  followers  of 
Peter  Waldo  universally  practised  infant  baptism  ;  but  he 
gives  us  no  authority  for  this  opinion.  The  only  one  of  their 
ancient  writings  which  sanctions  it  is  the  Spiritual  Calendar, 
but  this,  if  genuine,  is  of  doubtful  date.  On  the  contrary,  all 
their  other  writings,  from  the  Noble  Lesson,  in  1100,  down 
to  their  Confession  of  Faith,  in  1655,  Dr.  Gill  affirms  to  be  in 
favor  of  the  baptism  of  believers  only.  It  appears  certain  that 
the  Cathari,  the  Paterines,  the  Berengarians,  the  Arnoldists, 
Petrobrusians,  and  Henricians,  i.e.  the  earlier  Waldenses,  as 
far  as  history  testifies,  vehemently  opposed  infant  baptism. 
That  there  were,  on  the  other  hand,  many  among  them  in 
after  years  who  adopted  the  practice,  is,  in  view  of  all  the 
facts,  highly  probable.  Mr.  Jones,  in  the  preface  to  the  fifth 


APPENDIX.  583 

edition  of  his  history,  says  that  "  the  Waldenses  were  Anti- 
pedobaptists. "  Mr.  Milner,  after  saying,  "  I  cannot  find  any 
satisfactory  proofs  that  the  Waldenses  were  in  judgment 
Anti-pedobaptists  strictly,"  concludes  thus  :  "  I  lay  no  great 
ptress  on  the  subject ;  for  the  Waldenses  might  have  been  a 
faithful,  humble,  and  spiritual  people,  as  I  believe  they  were, 
ii  they  had  differed  from  the  general  body  of  Christians  on 
this  article.  See  ANABAPTISTS  in  this  Appendix. 

However  this  point  may  be  decided,  it  is  now  generally 
acknowledged  that  the  Waldenses  were  the  witnesses  for  the 
truth  in  the  Jark  ages,  and  that  they  gave  the  first  impulse 
to  a  reform  of  the  whole  Christian  Church,  so  called. 

BAPTISTS.  The  Baptists  in  England,  at  this  time,  have 
a  membership  exceeding  200,000,  with  a  population  of  about 
1,000,000.  In  1792,  they  began  their  famous  India  Mission 
— the  pioneer  of  all  Protestant  Missions  in  the  East.  Of  late 
years  they  have  greatly  prospered,  and  are  now  generally  re 
garded  as  the  most  progressive  body  of  Christians  in  England. 

Tha  Baptists  of  the  United  States  established,  in  1814,  a 
Missionary  Union  for  Foreign  Missions  ;  a  Home  Mission 
Society  in  1832  ;  an  American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in 
1838  ;  a  Bible  Union  for  He  vision  in  1850,  which,  however, 
is  not  exclusively  Baptist,  being  sustained  by  many  of  other 
denominations  for  the  sake  of  a  more  exact  version  of  tne 
sacred  text  in  the  English  tongue.  It  now  employs  the  best 
scholars  in  the  country  in  its  work,  without  regard  to  denomi- 
nation. 

Besides  the  Home  Mission  Society,  whose  field  is  all  North 
America,  the  Baptists  have  Conventions  or  General  Associa- 
tions in  every  State  for  Domestic  Missions,  and  Education 
Societies  for  the  aid  of  licentiates  preparing  for  the  ministry 
in  colleges  and  theological  seminaries,  of  whom  there  are  over 
1000.  A  Theological  Institute  for  Freedmen  was  founded 
early  in  1865,  and  has  numerous  branches.  The  receipts  and 
diture  for  these  various  purposes  the  last  year  was 


584  APPENDIX. 

about  $500,000.  If  we  add  the  sums  expended  in  endow 
\nents  of  seminaries  of  all  grades,  it  will  exceed  $1,500,000. 
A  liberal  Baptist,  of  Pougbkeepsie,  New  York,  within  five 
years  has  given  nearly  $500,000  for  founding  a  College  for 
female  education,  where  400  young  ladies  are  now  under  the 
tuition  of  accomplished  Christian  teachers.  A  single  family, 
near  Philadelphia,  has  given  $50,000  this  year  as  a  Fund  for 
the  Freedmen,  to  be  expended  through  the  American  Baptist 
Publication  Society,  an  institution  whose  total  receipts  for  the, 
last  year  were  over  $173,000.  The  annual  outlay  on  new 
church  edifices  exceeds  $1,000,000.  These  facts  and  figures 
show  a  remarkable  development  of  energy  and  enlightened 
liberality  in  this  Christian  denomination. 

CHRISTIANITY  :  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  SOD 
of  God,  as  delineated  in  the  sacred  Scriptures.  Its  peculiar 
and  characteristic  feature  is,  that  it  reveals  the  only  way  of 
salvation  for  sinful  men,  through  the  incarnation  and  atoning 
death  of  a  divine  Redeemer,  in  which  "  the  righteousness  of 
God  is  manifest"  in  harmony  with  his  mercy,  "  that  he  might 
be  just,  and  the  justifier  of  him  that  believeth  in  Jesus.* 
(Rom.  iii.  20,  21.)  To  this,  the  Holy  Spirit  sets  his  seal. 

All  the  variety  of  forms  in  which  Christianity  appears  in 
this  book,  may  be  reduced  to  two  :  namely,  EVANGELICAL 
CHRISTIANITY,  which  in  the  legitimate  use  of  reason  receives 
the  religion  of  Christ  as  it  is — a  revealed  method  of  salvation 
for  sinners;  and  RATIONALISTIC  CHRISTIANITY,  which,  by  an 
illegitimate  use  of  reason,  would  exalt  it  as  the  ultimate 
authority  in  regard  to  the  matters  revealed.  (See  RATION- 
ALISTS, in  this  Appendix.)  RATIONALISTIC  CHRISTIANITY 
again,  appears  under  four  distinct  forms.  1.  Philosophical, 
as  in  the  Gnostics,  Arians,  etc. ;  2.  Formal  or  Sacramental ; 
3.  Hierarchical,  and  4.  Political.  Examples  of  the  three  last 
division*,  which,  indeed,  are  intimately  allied,  may  be  seen 
in  the  Roman  and  Greek  Churches,  and  in  the  principal  Church 
establishments  of  modern  Europe.  All  three  are  strongly 


APPENDIX.  585 

pervaded  also  by  the  Traditional  element ;  the  Rationalistic 
remodelling  Christianity  to  suit  its  own  ideas  oi  n'liat  reli- 
gion ought  to  be,  to  fit  it  for  the  condition  of  the  world,  and 
the  Traditional  seeking  to  perpetuate  the  innovations  thus  in- 
troduced under  the  pretence  of  Conservatism. 

But  the  object  of  this  article  is  not  to  develop  these  points, 
but  to  present  some  general  views  of  the  present  condition 
and  prospects  of  Christianity,  as  the  one  true  religion,  de- 
signed to  subdue  and  supersede  all  others,  and  become,  like 
the  sun  in  the  firmanent,  the  fixed  light  and  life  of  men.  And 
we  cannot,  perhaps,  do  this  better  than  by  some  extracts 
from  a  distinguished  French  philosopher,  M.  Jouffroy,  in 
his  Essay  On  the  Present  State  of  Humanity. 

It  must  be  remarked,  that  the  writer  here  regards  Budd- 
hism as  but  a  form  of  Braminism,  from  which  it  originally 
proceeded. 

"  We  may  regard  the  world  as  subject  to  the  attraction  of 
three  different  forms,  or  three  systems  of  civilization  :  Chris- 
tianity, Braminism,  and  Mohammedanism. — A  real  religion 
is  nothing  but  a  complete  solution  of  the  great  questions 
which  interest  humanity,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  destiny  of  man, 
of  his  origin,  of  his  future  condition,  of  his  relation  to  God  and 
to  his  fellow-men.  Now  it  is  by  virtue  of  the  opinions  which 
different  nations  profess  on  these  questions,  that  they  establish 
a  mode  of  worship,  a  government  and  laws ;  that  they  adopt 
certain  manners,  habits,  and  thoughts  ;  that  they  aspire  to  a 
certain  order  of  things,  which  they  regard  as  the  ideal  of  the 
True,  the  Beautiful,  the  Right,  and  the  Good,  in  this  world. 
The  true  and  radical  dillerence  between]  savage  and  civilized 
nations,  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  former  have  only  crude 
and  vague  ideas  on  the  great  questions  which  interest  Hu- 
manity, so  that  these  ideas  could  not  be  brought  into  a  sj-ffi- 
cieutly  precise  form  for  the  construction  of  a  system. 

"  If  in  any  part  of  the  earth  there  were  a  great  mass  of 
savage  nations  in  contact,  as  there  was  in  the  north  and  in 
the  centre  of  Asia,  during  the  fourth  century,  we  might  admit 


586*  APPENDIX. 

the  possibility  that  a  system  suddenly  appearing  in  the 
bosom  of  this  mass,  could  gather  around  it  the  people  who 
composed  it,  and  crertte  a  fourth  civilization,  a  fourth  centre 
of  attraction.  But  such  a  mass  does  not  exist. 

"  We  may  then  regard  those  three  systems  of  civilization 
as  the  only  systems  which  can  exert  an  influence  on  the  des- 
tinies of  the  world.  To  those  systems,  therefore,  we  must 
give  our  attention.  What  are  their  respective  forces,  the 
degrees  of  their  vigor  and  attractive  power  ? 

"  Now  it  is  proved  by  facts  that  the  Christian  civilization  is 
the  only  one  of  the  three  which  is  endowed  at  the  present  day 
with  an  expansive  power.  It  is  in  truth  the  only  one  which 
makes  any  progress  at  the  expense  of  the  others,  and  which 
gains  savage  tribes  to  civilization. 

"  Braminism  has  few  or  no  savages  to  civilize.  Its  do- 
minion extends  to  the  eastern  borders  of  Asia,  and  on  the 
west  it  approaches  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity.  It  is 
therefore  in  contact  with  the  other  systems  of  civilization. 
And  as  it  forms  no  foreign  colonies,  it  remains  unknown  to 
savages  of  other  countries.  It  will  accordingly  have  no  share 
in  the  mass  of  men  who  are  yet  to  be  civilized. 

"  Mohammedanism  also  forms  no  colonies  ;  like  Braminism, 
it  keeps  at  home  ;  the  time  when  it  subdued  nations  with  the 
sword  is  past.  Now,  on  the  east  toward  Asia,  on  the  north 
and  on  the  west  toward  Europe,  it  is  arrested  by  Bramiuisin 
and  Christian  civilization.  It  comes  in  contact  with  savages 
only  at  the  south,  toward  the  centre  of  Africa.  We  know 
not  whether  it  continues  to  extend  in  that  direction,  or  whether 
the  immense  conquests  which  it  formerly  made  are  still  in- 
creasing ;  but  we  may  affirm  with  certainty,  that  if  it  does  con- 
'  tiuue  to  make  conquests  among  savage  tribes,  it  is  the  mere 
result  of  contact,  and  not  at  all  of  design  ;  for  in  the  present 
day  we  do  not  discern  in  Mohammedanism  the  slightest  trace 
of  the  spirit  of  proselytism  which  it  once  possessed,  and 
which  is  now  so  ardently  cherished  by  Christian  nations. 

"  If  we  now  turn  our  eyes  to  Christianity,  we  perceive  that 


APPENDIX.  587 

with  the  exception  of  the  barbarians  of  Africa — and  even 
ttK'se  it  is  on  the  point  of  disputing  with  Mohammedanism — 
it  holds  in  its  hand  all  the  savages  of  the  rest  of  the  world. 
There  is  hardly  an  island  of  any  magnitude  where  it  has  not 
taken  a  station  on  its  coast,  and  visited  with  its  ships  ;  and 
by  degrees  the  population  of  every  island  of  the  ocean  will 
ft.ll  under  its  system.  By  holding  the  coast  of  New  Holland 
(Australia)  it  surrounds  with  a  thread  which  they  cannot 
escape  from,  all  the  tribes  of  the  fifth  world — tribes  the  most 
barbarous  which  have  yet  been  discovered.  It  will  follow 
the  same  course  there  which  it  has  followed  in  America. 

"  If  we  consider  the  conquests  over  one  another  which  are 
made,  or  should  be  made  by  the  three  systems,  we  find  new 
proof  of  the  expansive  power  which  is  possessed  exclusively 
by  Christian  civilization.  Neither  Braminism  nor  Moham- 
medanism penetrates,  or  attempts  to  penetrate,  into  Chris- 
tian possessions.  Christianity  and  its  civilization  everywhere 
advance  with  ardor,  and  with  deliberate  purpose,  into  the 
domains  of  Brama  and  of  Mohammed.  They  openly  meditate 
their  conquest.  The  Bible  and  Missionary  Societies  are  in- 
stituted for  this  express  purpose.  But  there  are  two  levers  of 
still  greater  power  in  operation,  to  detach  ancient  Asia  from 
its  ancient  doctrines.  These  levers  are  Russia  and  England. 
While  Russia  acts  upon  Asia  on  the  north,  from  the  Ural 
mountains  to  the  extremity  of  Kamschatka,  and  opens  a  large 
third  of  this  vast  country  to  our  civilization,  England  invades 
it  in  the  south,  and  causes  our  power  to  penetrate  into  the 
very  centre  of  Braminism. 

"  Now  this  superiority  of  power  is  a  new  circumstance, 
which  appears  to  give  Christianity  brighter  and  brighter 
promise  of  the  conquest  of  the  world. 

"  The  Christian  system  is  making  progress,  and  rapid  pro- 
gress, while  the  other  two  are  decaying;  the  nations  which 
compose  it  are  every  day  becoming  more  united,  and  growing 
into  a  powerful  aggregate  which  nothing  on  earth  is  able  to 
renist  It  is  impossible  for  the  Christian  system  to  be  ab- 


588  APPENDIX. 

eorbed  in  either  of  the  others ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  begin- 
ning to  absorb  them  both,  or  at  least,  to  reduce  the  territory  • 
which  they  occupy ;  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  these  conquests  will  soon  go  on  with  increased  rapidity. 
We  cannot  then  avoid  the  conclusion,  that  if  the  Christian 
system  of  civilization  be  not  destroyed  by  internal  defect,  it 
is  destined  to  gain  possession  of  the  earth.  Its  future  condi- 
tion involves  the  future  condition  of  the  world." 

The  argument  of  M.  Jouffroy,  a  mere  outline  of  which  we 
have  given,  seems  perfectly  satisfactory  as  to  the  general  fact, 
that  Christianity  in  some  form  will  gain  dominion  of  the 
world.  But  it  may  be  asked,  as  a  distinct  question,  In  what 
form  will  it  prevail  ?  "Will  it  be  Evangelical  or  Rationalistic  ? 
We  use  these  terms  in  the  sense  already  denned  in  the  be- 
ginning of  this  article.  Now  the  same  line  ol  argument 
pursued  by  M.  Jouffroy,  may  be  adopted  to  answer  this  latter 
question,  and  we  think  with  great  success.  The  following 
remarks  of  Isaac  Taylor,  in  his  "Natural  History  of  Enthusi 
asm,"  will  show  this  : 

"  If  we  are  to  calculate  the  probable  extension  or  extinction 
of  certain  opinions,  we  must  consult  the  evidence  of  facts  on 
a  large  scale,  and  especially  must  observe  what  manifesta- 
tions of  intrinsic  power  they  have  given  us  on  certain  peculiar 
and  critical  occasions.  This  is  the  only  course  that  can  be 
deemed  satisfactory,  or  that  is  conformed  to  the  procedures 
of  modern  science. 

"  The  early  triumphs  of  the  Gospel  over  the  fascinating  idol- 
atries and  the  astute  atheism  of  Greece  and  Rome,  has  been 
often  insisted  upon  (and  conclusively)  as  evidence  of  its  truth. 
With-  that  argument  we  have  nothing  now  to  do  ;  yet  if  the 
subject  were  not  such  a  very  hackneyed  one,  it  might  well  be 
brought  forwai'd  in  all  its  details  in  proof  of  a  very  different 
point — the  innate  power  of  the  religion  of  the  Bible  to  van- 
quish the  hearts  of  men, 

"  But  if  there  were  room  to  imagine  that  the  first  spread  of 
Christianity  was  owing  rather  to  an  accidental  conjuncture 


APPENDIX.  589 

jf  favoring  circumstances  than  to  its  real  power  over  the 
human  mind,  or  if  it  might  be  thought  that  any  such  peculiar 
virtue  was  all  spent  and  exhausted  in  the  first  expansive 
effort,  then  it  is  natural  to  look  to  the  next  occasion  on  which 
the  opinions  of  mankind  were  put  in  fermentation,  and  to 
watch  in  what  manner  the  system  of  the  Bible  then  rode  over 
the  high  billows  of  political,  religious,  and  intellectual  com- 
motion. It  was  a  fair  trial  for  Christianity,  and  a  trial  essen- 
tially different  from  its  first,  when,  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
after  having  been  corrupted  in  every  part  to  a  state  jf 
loathsome  ulceration,  it  had  to  contend  for  existence,  and  to 
work  its  own  renovation,  at  the  moment  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary expansion  of  the  human  intellect  that  has  ever  hap- 
pened. .  .  . 

"At  such  a  time,  which  seemed  to  leave  no  chance  for  con- 
cinued  existence  to  aught  that  was  not  in  its  nature  vigorous, 
might  it  not  have  confidently  said,  This  must  be  the  crisis  of 
Christianity  ?  if  it  be  not  inwardly  sound,  if  it  has  not  a  true 
hold  of  human  nature,  if  it  be  a  thing  of  feebleness  and  dotage, 
fit  only  far  cells  and  cowls  and  the  precincts  of  spiritual 
despotism  ;  if  it  be  not  adapted  to  the  world  of  action,  if  it 
have  not  sympathy  with  the  feelings  of  men — of  freemen, 
nothing  can  save  it :  no  power  of  princes,  no  devices  of  priests, 
will  avail  to  rear  it  anew  and  replace  it  in  the  veneration  of 
the  people  :  at  least  not  in  any  country  where  has  been  felt 
the  freshening  gale  of  intellectual  life.  The  result  of  this  crisis 
need  not  be  narrated. 

"  Whether  the  religion  for  which  the  Reformers  suffered  was 
from  heaven,  or  of  men,'  is  not  our  question  ;  but  whether 
it  is  not  a  religion  of  robust  constitution,  framed  to  endure 
And  to  spread,  and  to  vanquish  the  hearts  of  men  ?  With 
the  history 'of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  in  view,  it 
M  asked  if  Christianity  be  a  system  that  must  always  lean 
t«pon  ignorance  and  craft  and  despotism,  and  which,  when 
these  rotten  stays  are  removed,  must  fall  and  be  seen  no  more  ? 

"  Yet  another  species  of  trial  was  in  store  to  give  proof  of 


590  APPENDIX. 

the  indestructibility  and  victorious  powei  of  Christianity.  It 
remained  to  be  seen  whether,  when  the  agitations,  politic-ill 
and  moral,  that  were  subsequent  upon  the  great  schism  which 
had  taken  place  in  Europe,  had  subsided,  and  when  the  season 
M"  slumber  and  exhaustion  came  on,  and  when  human  reason, 
strengthened  and  refined  by  physical  science  and  elegant 
literature,  should  awake  fully  to  the  consciousness  of  its 
powers;  whether  then  the  religion  of  the  Bible  could  retain 
its  hold  of  the  nations,  or  at  least  those  of  them  that  enjoyed, 
without  limit,  the  happy  influences  of  political  liberty  and  in- 
tellectual light.  This  was  a  sort  of  probation  which  Christi- 
anity had  never  before  passed  through.  .  .  . 

"  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  a  single  advantage  that  was  lacking 
to  the  promoters  of  infidelity,  or  a  single  circumstance  of  peril 
or  ill-omen  that  was  not  present  to  deepen  the  gloom  of  the 
friends  of  religion.  The  actual  issue  of  that  signal  crisis  is 
before  our  eyes  in  the  freshness  of  a  recent  event.  Christian- 
ity— we  need  not  ask  whether  for  the  benefit  or  the  injury  of 
the  world — has  triumphed  ;  the  mere  fact  is  all  that  concerns 
our  argument." 

Once  more  :  "  The  spread  of  the  English  stock  and  language 
and  literature  over  the  North  American  Continent,  is  a  signi- 
ficant indication  of  the  power  of  Christianity  to  retain  its  hold 
of  the  mind,  and  of  its  aptness  to  go  hand  in  hand  with 
civilization,  even  when  unaided  by  those  secular  succors,  to 
which  its  enemies  in  malice,  and  some  of  its  friends  in  over- 
caution,  are  p"rone  to  attribute  too  much  importance.  The 
tendency  of  republicanism,  and  the  connection  of  the  colonies 
at  the  moment  of  their  revolt  (from  the  mother  country)  with 
France,  and  the  prevalence  of  a  peculiarly  eager  and  uncor 
rected  commercial  temper,  and  the  absence  of  every  sort  and 
semblance  of  restraint  upon  opinion,  were  concurrent  circum- 
stances belonging  to  the  infancy  of  the  American  Union,  of  a 
kind  which  put  to  the  severest  test  the  intrinsic  power  of 
Christianity  in  retaining  its  hold  of  the  human  mind.  Could 
Infidel  experimenters  have  wished  for  conditions  more  equ'u 


APPENDIX  5fH 

hie,  under  which  to  try  the  respective  forces  of  the  opposing 
systems  ?  And  what  has  been  the  issue  ?  Christianity  has 
gained  rather  than  lost  ground,  and  shows  itself  in  a  style  of 
as  much  fervor  and  zeal  as  in  England ;  and  perhaps  it  hag 
won  the  advantage  in  these  respects.  Wherever  on  that  con 
tinent  good  order  and  intelligence  are  spreading,  there  alst 
the  religion  of  the  Bible  spreads." 

It  has,  then,  been  proved  that  nothing  inseparable  from 
human  nature,  nothing  invincible,  stands  in  the  way  of  the 
diffusion  of  our  evangelical  faith  among  either  polished  or 
barbarous  nations,  for  already  it  has  been  victorious  in  both 
kinds.  "  Let  it  be  affirmed  that  the  religious  infatuations  of 
mankind  are  firm  as  adamant ;  still  it  is  a  fact  that  a  hammer 
harder  than  adamant  once  shattered  the  rock  to  atoms.  And 
now,  when  it  is  proposed  to  smite  the  same  substance  with 
the  same  instrument,  are  those  to  be  deemed  irrational  who 
anticipate  the  same  success  ?" 

"  There  was  a  greater  disproportion  (as  Mr.  Douglas  ob- 
serves) between  the  resources  of  the  first  Christians  and  their 
success  in  changing  the  moral  condition  of  the  Roman  empire, 
than  there  is  at  present  between  the  means  which  Christiana 
now  possess  and  the  universal  conversion  of  the  world.  True 
benevolence  will  come  in  the  train  of  genuine  Christianity, 
and  mankind,  in  promoting  the  welfare  of  each  other,  will 
find  that  happiness  which  has  long  escaped  them.  Then  will 
be  the  harvest  of  the  moral  world ;  and  the  seed  of  noble 
thoughts  and  deeds  that  once  seemed  lost,  shall  suddenly 
shoot  forth  and  ripen  to  maturity,  and  the  success  of  wrong, 
even  in  this  world,  shall  seem  brief  compared  with  the  long 
ages  that  shall  crown  the  efforts  of  wisdom  and  virtue." 


592 


APPENDIX. 


RE-UNION  OF  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHTJROIL 

NOTWITHSTANDING  the  fearful  shock  which  in  1837-8  rent 
this  large  and  influential  body  of  Christians  in  twain,  and 
which  was  attended  with  violent  controversies,  trials  for 
heresy  and  law  suits,  many  hearts,  in  both  sections  of  the 
Church,  continued  to  be  linked  together  in  indissoluble 
bonds.  Neither  body  attempted  to  alter,  in  the  slightest 
manner,  the  doctrinal  standards,  or  departed  from  the  well 
known  principles  of  the  Presbyterian  polity.  There  was  a 
keen  and  wide-spread  sense  of  the  scandal  to  the  Christian 
name  and  the  cause  of  Protestantism  and  Presbyterianism, 
in  this  new  breach  of  ecclesiastical  unity.  Multitudes  on 
both  sides  never  ceased  to  yearn  for  a  healing  of  the  breach, 
and  the  exscinded  or  New  School  portion,  for  a  long  time 
did  not  give  up  the  hope  of  a  satisfactory  adjustment  of 
difficulties  and  a  restoration  of  the  unity  of  the  Church,  nnd 
consequently  delayed  taking  action,  looking  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  a  separate  denominational  existence. 

The  first  steps,  however,  which  they  took,  with  this  end 
In  view,  as  the  event  turned  out,  were  stops  in  an  indirect, 
but  sure  road  to  reunion.  They  proved  and  they  cultivated 
the  genuine  Presbyterianism  of  the  body,  and  they  gradu- 
ally separated  them  from  that  co-operation  with  Congrega- 
tionalists  and  with  voluntary  and  outside  societies,  which 
was  so  distasteful  to  the  Old  School  body  and  which  was,  in 
fact,  the  immediate  cause  of  the  division.  Many  leading 
New  School  men,  whose  sympathy  with  the  Congregational- 
ists  was  strong,  resisted  these  movements  for  denomina- 
tional and  separate  action,  as  ignoring  the  past  record  and 
destroying  the  comprehensive  spirit  of  the  bod}* ;  but  the 
majority  perceiving  no  salvation  for  the  denomination  but 


APPENDIX.  593 

in  looking  after  its  own  Home  Missionary,  Educational  and 
Publishing  interests,  continued  to  press  them,  until  a  degree 
of  interior  organization  and  success  was  reached,  rivaling 
that  of  the  Old  School  body  itself. 

In  another  course  of  action,  the  New  School  body  was  as 
surely,  and  yet  as  unexpectedly,  preparing  for  the  same  re- 
mote result.  The  high  ground  it  took  on  the  subject  of 
slavery,  after  estranging  many  of  its  conservative  members 
North  and  South,  at  length,  in  1857,  culminated  in  a  deliver- 
ance, mild,  but  firm  and  explicit,  which  drove  off  almost  its 
entire  Southern  membership  in  a  body.  The  Southern  sec- 
tion of  the  Old  School  Church,  on  the  contrary,  powerful 
in  numbers  and  in  the  extiaordinary  ability  of  some  of  its 
leading  men,  held  back  the  Old  School  Assembly  from  any 
positive  action  and  serious  agitation  of  the  subject  thus 
maintaining  its  standing  in  the  prevalent  conservative  sen- 
timent of  the  country,  and  putting  the  New  School  Assembly 
at  a  disadvantage  as  a  body  of  agitators,  especially  in  the 
Middle  States,  where  the  great  strength  of  the  denomina- 
tion lay. 

All  this  seemed  but  to  deepen  and  widen  the  division  be- 
tween the  two  bodies.  But  the  unforeseen  and  mighty  ele- 
ment of  the  Southern  Rebellion  was  yet  to  come  in  play,  as 
one  of  the  forces  bearing  on  the  question.  In  1861,  the 
entire  Southern  constituency  of  the  Old  School  Church  was 
sundered  violently  from  the  main  body,  the  General  As- 
sembly which  met  at  Philadelphia  that  year  having  taken 
high  loyal  ground  on  the  issues  of  the  war.  At  the  same 
time,  the  New  School  Assembly  meeting  in  Syracuse, 
was  establishing  its  Permanent  Committee  of  Home  Mis- 
sions, and  withdrawing  finally  from  co-operation  with  the 
Congregationalists  on  that  important  field. 

Thus  the  course  of  events  brought  the  assemblies  on  a 
common  platform,  on  two  of  the  very  subjects  which  had 
most  widely  divided  them — Church-boards  and  slavery. 
And  the  various  experiences  of  the  ensuing  four 

50  *  2  N 


APPENDIX. 

struggle,  the  common  hopes,  fears,  trials,  sacrifices  and 
labors  of  that  tremendous  ordeal,  continually  strengthened 
every  tie  of  sympathy  between  them. 

The  lively  co-operation  of  the  various  Christian  denomina- 
tions in  the  vast  sanitary,  benevolent  and  Christian  entoT- 
prizes  for  the  benefit  of  the  soldiers  during  the  war,  did 
more  to  break  down  denominational  prejudices,  and  to  culti- 
vate a  broad  spirit  of  evangelical  catholicity,  than  any  other 
agency  in  the  century.  The  Christian  Commission,  under 
the  able  and  zealous  leadership  of  George  H.  Stuart,  Esq.,  of 
Philadelphia,  was  especially  serviceable  in  associating  min- 
isters and  laymen  of  all  denominations,  in  labors  of  Christian 
love,  in  the  camp,  on  the  march,  in  the  hospital,  and  on  the 
battle  field.  Amid  these  scenes  of  deep  spiritual  necessity 
and  of  imminent  death,  all  human  distinctions  seemed 
trifling.  Great  and  simple  truths  alone  could  reach  and 
sustain  the  soul,  in  such  times  as  these. 

Doctrinal  controversy  had  almost  wholly  ceased  between 
the  bodies.  The  popular  interest  in  such  discussions  had 
subsided.  The  personal  asperities  of  the  conflict  of  a  quarter 
of  a  century  ago  had  worn  away.  Differences  of  opinion  on 
unessential  matters  in  the  Calvinistic  system  were  found  to 
exist  in  both  branches.  New  School  men  were  called  to  Old 
School  pulpits,  and  Old  School  men  to  New  School  pulpits, 
without  any  peculiar  sense  of  incongruity  among  the  par- 
ties concerned.  Large-minded  laymen,  practical  men  of 
business,  like  Robert  Carter,  on  the  one  side,  and  William 
E.  Dodge,  on  the  other,  could  see  no  reasons  for  prolonging 
Hie  state  of  disunion  between  two  churches  of  the  same  name, 
standard  and  spirit.  Both  bodies  were  rich  in  divines  o/ 
standing  and  influence,  recognized,  like  Gardiner  Spring 
and  Albert  Barnes,  throughout  Christendom. 

The  first  in  the  series  of  formal  movements  towards  re- 
union was  taken  conjointly  by  the  Old  School  Presbytery  of 
Ogdensburg  and  the  New  School  Presbytery  of  St.  Lawrence, 
in  a  meeting  held  at  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y.,  January  14th,  1862. 


APPENDIX.  595 

Tbe  joint  meeting  passed  a  unanimous  resolution  expressive 
of  their  desire  to  be  united  into  one  body,  and  under  one 
General  Assembly,  and  sent  an  overture  in  favor  of  reunion 
to  the  two  assemblies  which  met  in  the  following  May. 

The  Old  School  Assembly,  which  met  in  Columbus,  0., 
did  not  make  a  very  encouraging  response  to  the  overture, 
hut  by  a  unanimous  vote  they  resolved  to  commence  the 
fraternal  interchange  of  delegates  or  commissioners  with 
the  New  School  Assembly,  provided  that  body  met  their 
proposals  in  the  same  amicable  spirit.  The  New  School 
Assembly,  meeting  at  the  same  time,  in  Cincinnati,  ex- 
pressed themselves  as  cordially  in  sympathy  with  the  spirit 
of  the  overtures  on  reunion,  and  declared  that  they  had 
never  shown  a  temper  adverse  to  union,  and  that  it  would 
give  them  pleasure  to  unite  with  all  occupying  the  same 
doctrinal  and  ecclesiastical  position  with  themselves,  and 
who  agreed  with  them  on  the  great  moral  questions  of  the 
day.  Beyond  this  declaration  of  their  views,  however,  they 
preferred  not  to  advance  at  the  present  time.  They  had 
adjourned  too  early  to  receive  notice  of  the  proposal  of 
the  Old  School  Assembly  for  an  interchange  of  delegates. 

Meeting  in  Philadelphia  the  next  year,  the  New  School 
Assembly  took  up  this  proposal  on  the  second  day  of  the 
session,  and  by  a  standing  and  unanimous  vote,  accepted 
it,  "with  heartfelt  pleasure  and  Christian  salutations." 
Their  action  was  telegraphed  without  delay  to  the  other 
Assembly,  meeting  at  the  same  time,  in  Peoria,  who,  by 
the  same  expeditious  method,  commissioned  Rev.  Septimus 
Tuslin,  D.  D.,  formerly  Chaplain  of  the  United  States 
Senate,  and  Hon.  George  Sharswood,  LL.D.,  of  Philadel- 
phia, to  represent  them  on  the  floor  of  the  New  School 
Assembly.  Rev.  Robert  W.  Patterson,  D.  D.,  and  Hon. 
Wm.  H.  Brown  of  Chicago,  were  appointed  by  the  New 
School  body  to  bear  their  salutations  to  the  Assembly  at 
Peoria. 

Thus  commenced  a  correspondence,  in  which,  at  once,  the 


APPENDIX. 

scandal  of  the  division  was  done  awa}',  and  Hie  mind  of  the 
Church,  as  represented  in  its  highest  judicatories,  prepared 
for  an  organic  union. 

In  1866,  both  the  General  Assemblies  met  in  St.  Louis. 
This  was  the  first  meeting  held  in  the  same  locality,  and  at 
the  same  time,  by  both  bodies,  since  the  question  of  re- 
union had  been  seriously  agitated.  The  opportunity  was 
taken  to  cultivate  and  strengthen  the  fraternal  feelings 
which  had  sprung  up  between  them.  Joint  religious  ser- 
vices were  held,  and  a  joint  communion  was  celebrated  by 
vote  of  the  two  bodies.  But,  more  important  than  all,  each 
Assembly  appointed  a  Committee  of  Fifteen,  thirty  in  all, 
to  consider  and  report  a  plan  for  the  reunion  of  the  two 
bodies.  The  Chairman  of  the  Old  School  Committee  was 
Rev.  Jno.  M.  Krebs,  of  New  York,  D.  D.,  and  that  of  the  New 
School  was  Rev.  Thomas  Brainerd,  D.  D.,  of  Philadelphia. 

The  appointment  of  this  joint  committee  was  the  signal 
for  a  lively  and  wide-spread  discussion  of  the  whole  subject 
of  reunion,  its  bearings,  its  propriety,  utility  and  season- 
ableness,  and  the  exact  nature  of  the  terms  on  which  it 
should  be  attempted.  Ultra  Old  School  men  doubted 
whether  the  New  School  was  thoroughly  Calvinistic  and 
Presbyterian,  and  feared  lest  the  terms  of  reunion  should 
be  made  so  loose  as  to  admit  of,  and  sanction,  serious  doc- 
trinal errors  and  unpresbyterian  modes  of  action.  Ultra 
New  School  men,  on  the  contrary,  were  unwilling  to  risk 
the  loss  of  the  liberty  of  opinion  which  they  enjoj^ed,  on 
points  which  they  considered  unessential  to  the  integrity 
of  the  Calvinistic  system.  And  while  there  was  a  large 
and  constantly  increasing  section  of  both  churches,  who 
stood  between  these  extremes,  who  through  lack  of  zeal  for 
doctrinal  niceties,  or  from  a  sentiment  of  charity  that  com- 
pletely bore  down  all  fears  and  prejudices,  were  unconcerned 
about  guarantees  for  doctrinal  soundness  or  for  liberty  of 
opinion,  it  was  manifest,  from  the  beginning,  that  great 
weight  must  be  given  to  these  opposite  ideas,  if  a  harmoni- 


APPENDIX.  597 

ons  decision  was  reached,  and  a  union  formed,  without  lead 
ing  to  further  and  painful  divisions. 

The  death  of  Dr.  Brainerd,  during  the  summer  of  1866, 
and  the  long,  and  finally  fatal,  illness  of  Dr.  Krebs,  the 
chairmen  of  each  of  the  committees,  deferred  action  until 
the  following  year.  The  committee  held  their  first  meet- 
ings, separately  and  jointly,  in  February,  1867.  Rev. 
George  F.  Wiswell,  D.  D.,  of  Philadelphia,  was  elected  ia 
place  of  Dr.  Brainerd,  and  Rev.  William  Adams,  D.  D.,  of 
New  York,  was  made  chairman  of  the  New  School  Commit- 
tee. Rev.  C.  C.  Beatty,  D.  D.,  was  made  chairman  of  the 
Old  School  Committee.  The  conferences  opened  with  much 
hesitation  and  embarrassment,  which,  however,  under  the 
influence  of  prayer,  and  fraternal  intercourse,  rapidly  wore 
away,  and  the  committee,  after  several  meetings,  agreed 
upon  a  plan  which  they  submitted  to  their  respective 
General  Assemblies  of  1867  :  the  one  meeting  in  Rochester, 
and  the  other  in  Cincinnati.  The  chief  interest  of  the  re- 
port centered  in  the  First  or  doctrinal,  article  which  was  as 
follows : 

First. — The  reunion  shall  be  effected  on  the  doctrinal  and 
ecclesiastical  basis  of  our  common  standards.  The  Confes- 
sion of  Faith  shall  continue  to  be  sincerely  received  and 
adopted,  as  containing  the  system  of  doctrine  taught  in  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  and  its  fair  historic  sense,  as  it  is  accepted 
by  the  two  bodies,  in  opposition  to  Antinomianism  and 
Fatalism,  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  Arminianism  and  Pelagi- 
anism  on  the  other,  shall  be  regarded  as  the  sense  in  which 
it  is  received  and  adopted ;  and  the  Government  and 
discipline  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States, 
shall  continue  to  be  approved  as  containing  the  principles 
and  rules  of  our  polity." 

The  remaining  articles  related  to  details  of  organization. 
It  was  provided,  that  the  consent  of  three-fourths  of  the 
Presbyteries  belonging  to  each  of  the  two  Assemblies,  must 
be  given  to  the  plan  within  a  3'ear,  in  order  to  secure  its  adop- 


598  APPENDIX. 

ti^n.  These  proposals  were  unanimously  adopted  and  trans- 
mitted to  the  Presbyteries  by  the  New  School  Assembly ; 
they  were  also  adopted  by  a  very  decided  majority  by 
the  Old  School  Assembly,  who,  however,  also  passed  a  reso- 
lution distinctly  disclaiming  any  other  purpose  in  their 
vote,  than  that  of  giving  the  Presbyteries  the  opportunity 
of  deciding  the  question  for  themselves. 

When  the  Presbyteries  come  to  vote  upon  the.  plan  in  the 
ensuing  fall,  scarcely  a  tithe  of  those  in 'the  Old  School 
body  gave  it  their  unqualified  approval,  and  it  was  defeated 
in  that  branch  of  the  Church  by  a  very  large  majority. 
The  New  School  Presbyteries  by  a  large  majority  voted  to 
approve  the  plan,  but  many  of  them  objected  to  the  vague- 
ness of  the  doctrinal  term,  as  an  insufficient  guarantee  for 
doctrinal  liberty. 

Great  discouragement  was  felt  by  the  friends  of  the 
scheme,  in  both  branches,  at  this  result.  And  it  seemed  as 
if  all  specific  efforts  for  reunion  must  be  abandoned  for  the 
present.  But  the  hopes  that  had  received  such  a  shock, 
were  revived  and  carried  to  a  higher  point  than  ever,  by  the 
National  Convention  for  a  reunion  of  all  the  separated 
bodies  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  which  was  held  in  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,  in  November  of  the  same  year. 
This  Convention,  which  was  attended  by  leading  men  of  the 
Old  and  New  Schools,  the  United  and  the  Reformed  Presby- 
terian Churches,  gave  an  opportunity  for  the  discussion  of 
the  basis  of  reunion  upon  a  still  broader  platform.  The 
conclusions  there  reached,  especially  upon  the  doctrinal 
articles,  showed  that  the  two  Schools  were  nearer  together 
than  the  decisions  of  the  Presbyteries  just  rendered,  would 

indicate. 
i 

This  Convention  was  not  more  remarkable  for  the  widely 
varying  shades  of  Presbyterian  sentiment  which  it  brought 
into  cordial  relations,  as  for  the  enthusiasm,  earnestness 
and  gratifying  success  which  attended  its  deliberations.  It 
would  seem  as  if  the  strong  undercurrent  of  reunion,  which 


APPENDIX.  599 

bad  been  obstructed,  and  dammed  up  by  the  action  of  the 
Presbyteries,  especially  in  the  Old  School  Church,  now 
broke  vehemently  over  all  restraints,  and  poured  itself  forth 
in  a  tide  that  could  not  be  stemmed.  Fuller  guarantees  for 
doctrinal  soundness  than  even  Old  School  men  cared  to 
have,  were  offered  by  New  School  men.  By  an  amendment 
offered  by  Prof.  Henry  B.  Smith,  of  Union  Seminary, 
New  York,  subscription  to  the  doctrinal  basis  of  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith  was  described  and  defined  as  receiving  the 
Confession  in  its  historical,  "that  is  Reformed,  or  Calvinis- 
tic  sense ;"  it  was  also  by  the  vote  of  the  New  School  dele- 
gates, that  the  highly  Calvinistic  Shorter  Catechism  was 
included  in  the  proposed  doctrinal  basis,  adopted  by  the 
Convention.  Guarantees  for  liberty  beyond  the  limits  of 
these  terms  were  not  demanded.  Perhaps  the  great  use  of  the 
Convention  was  to  reveal  the  unexpected  and  uncontrollable 
strength  of  the  hitherto  latent  feelings  of  sympathy  and 
cordial  Christian  aifection  of  Presbyterians  for  each  other, 
in  spite  of  their  numerous  and  somewhat  discreditable 
divisions.  Where  such  feelings  prevailed,  technical  objec- 
tions and  difficulties  in  the  way  of  reunion,  it  was  foreseen, 
must  eventually  give  way. 

The  Reunion  Committees  of  the  two  Assemblies  now 
resumed  their  labors  with  a  renewed  hope  of  success.  They 
modified-  their  doctrinal  article  by  inserting  "  the  Smith 
amendment,"  as  already  described,  and  followed  it  up  with 
a  clause  in  the  interest  of  liberty,  proposed  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
G'irley. 

This  celebrated  addition,  known  as  the  Gurley  amend- 
ment, read  as  follows : 

"  It  is  also  understood  that  various  methods  of  viewing, 
stating,  explaining  and  illustrating  the  doctrines  of  the 
Confession  which  do  not  impair  the  integrity  of  the  Re- 
formed or  Calvinistic  system  are  to  be  freely  allowed  in 
the  United  Church,  as  they  have  hitherto  been  allowed  in 
the  separate  Churches  " 


(500 


APPENDIX. 


A  new  article,  called  the  Tenth,  was  introduced,  by  which 
the  right  was  conceded  to  the  individual  Presbytery  to  go 
back  of  the  credentials  of  a  member  applying  for  admission, 
and  satisfy  itself  by  examination,  of  his  soundness ;  at  the 
same  time  leaving  each  Presbytery  free  to  exercise  the  right 
or  not  as  it  saw  fit. 

With  this  amended  Report,  the  Committees  appeared 
m  the  General  Assemblies  of  the  Old  School  meeting  in 
Albany,  and  the  New  School,  in  Harrisbnrg.  Large  major- 
ities and  leading  men  in  both  bodies,  were  found  to  be  in 
favor  of  adopting  the  Report ;  but  vigorous  and  able  minor- 
ities in  both  contended,  with  such  earnestness,  for  further 
•modifications,  that  a  harmonious  adjustment  seemed  as 
remote  as  ever.  In  the  New  School  Assembly,  opposition 
was  directed  mainly  to  the  Tenth  article,  and  opportunity 
having  been  given  before  taking  the  vote,  for  the  expressioi 
of  dissent  from  any  part  of  the  basis,  thirty-eight  persona 
recorded  their  dissent  from  the  Tenth  article  ;  four  persons 
were  excused  from  voting,  and  then  the  Report  on  reunion 
was  adopted  unanimously. 

In  the  Assembly  at  Albany,  opposition  centered  mainly 
on  the  explanatory  clauses  of  the  Second  Article,  [i.  e.  the 
Gurley  amendment.]  This  opposition  was  so  earnest  and 
powerful,  that  the  majority  sent  a  deputation,  consisting 
of  Rev.  Drs.  C.  C.  Beatty  and  V.  D.  Reed,  and  Elders 
Rober*  Carter  and  Henry  Day,  from  Albany  to  Harrisburg, 
to  represent  to  the  New  School  Assembly  the  delicacy  and 
urgency  of  the  situation,  and  to  ask  their  consent  to  the 
omission  of  these  clauses.  Rules  of  order,  however,  made  it 
impossible  for  the  New  School  body,  at  that  stage  of  the 
proceedings,  to  entertain  a  motion  to  reconsider,  and  the 
deputation  was  compelled  to  return,  after  a  most  cordial  and 
respectful  reception,  without  accomplishing  their  object. 

Notwithstanding  their  failure,  the  Report,  unamended,  was 
adopted  by  the  Assembly  at  Albany,  the  vote  on  the  first 
and  most  warmly  contested  article  being  186  to  79.  After. 


APPENDIX.  00, 

wards,  however,  by  way  of  conciliating  the  minority,  it  w:is 
voted  unanimously  that  the  Assembly  would  prefer  the  ba-is 
with  the  explanatory  clauses  of  the  First  article  omittL-tl ; 
it  was  also  resolved,  that  in  adopting  it  they  did  not 
mean  to  give  license  to  propagate  doctrines,  which  have 
been  condemned  by  either  Assembly,  nor  to  permit  ary 
Presbyter}-  in  the  United  States,  to  license  or  ordain  to  the 
work  of  the  Ministry,  any  candidate  who  maintains  any 
form  of  doctrine  condemned  by  either  Assembly. 

This  action,  received  by  telegraph  in  the  New  School 
Assembly,  just  as  they  were  adjourning,  at  eleven  o'clock 
at  night,  made  an  unpleasant  impression.  The  Union  men 
in  the  Old  School  Assembly  however,  were  in  dead  earnest. 
A  protest  against  the  action  on  reunion  was  presented  by 
fifty-one  members  of  their  body,  charging  the  New  School 
with  dangerous  doctrinal  tendencies.  The  Assembly's  reply 
to  the  protest  recognizes  in  the  fullest  and  most  unequivo- 
cal manner,  the.  soundness  of  the  New  School  body,  on  all 
the  fundamentals  of  the  Calviuistic  system. 

The  plan  of  the  Joint  Committees  was  once  more  sub- 
mitted to  the  vote  of  the  Presbyteries.  One  bunded  of  the 
one  hundred  and  thirteen  New  School  Presbyteries  adopted 
the  plan  as  it  stood.  Very  few  of  the  Old  School  Presby- 
teries approved  of  the  plan  without  amendment,  most  of 
them  reiterating  the  preference,  expressed  by  the  Albany 
Assembly,  for  the  omission  of  the  explanatory  clauses  from 
the  doctrinal  article,  at  the  same  time  proposing  to  retain 
the  Tenth  Article,  so  much  disliked  by  the  decided  men  iu<i 
the  New  School  body. 

When  the  Assemblies  met  in  1869,  in  New  York  City, 
the  New  School  felt  that,  in  adopting  the  Committee's  plan 
with  such  a  near  approach  to  unanimity,  they  had  dona 
their  part.  It  remained  for  the  Old  School  body,  whose 
Presbyteries  had  defeated  that  plan,  to  propose  a  new  one. 
This  responsibility  the  Old  School  Assembly  promptly 

accepted,  for  it  seemed  a.  foregone  conclusion,  in  spite  of 
51 


602  APPEKDIX. 

all  untoward  appearances,  that  reunion  must  take  place, 
and  that  all  obstacles  must  be  removed  now. 
•  On  the  very  first  day  of  its  session,  that  Assembly 
appointed  an  entirety  new  Committee  of  Conference,  on 
the  subject,  which  was  responded  to  by  the  immediate 
appointment  of  a  new  Committee  on  the  part  of  the  other 
Assembly.  In  seven  days,  these  Committees  matured  a 
new  plan,  which  was  submitted  simultaneously  in  both 
Assemblies,  and  adopted  with  but  eight  dissenting  votes  in 
the  Old  School,  and  unanimously  by  the  New  School 
body. 

The  doctrinal  article  of  this  plan  was  as  follows  : 
"  The  reunion  shall  be  effected  on  the  doctrinal  and 
ecclesiastical  basis  of  our  common  standards :  The  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  shall  be  acknowledged 
to  be  the  inspired  word  of  God,  the  only  infallible  rule  of 
faith  and  practice  ;  the  Confession  of  Faith  shall  continue 
to  be  sincerely  received  and  adopted,  as  containing  the 
system  of  doctrine  taught  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  ;  and  the 
government  and  discipline  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States,  shall  be  approved  as  containing  the  prin- 
ciples and  rules  of  our  policy." 

No  reference  was  made  to  the  right  of  examination,  which 
as  recognized  in  the  Tenth  Article,  in  the  plan  of  1 80S,  had 
caused  such  divergence  of  sentiment.  The  matter  was  left  as 
the  Form  of  Government  leaves  it — indeterminate.  Certain 
Concurrent  Declarations  were  also  appended  to  the  basis,  not 
as  parts  of  the  plan  nor  of  binding  force,  }Tet  as  just  and 
equitable  arrangements,  to  which  both  bodies  were  expected 
to  assent.  These  declarations  asserted  the  right  of  all  min- 
isters and  churches  to  an  equal  standing  in  the  United 
Church,  with  that  which  they  held  in  the  separate  bodies. 
Imperfectly  organized  churches  were  counselled  and  ex- 
pected to  become  thoroughly  Presbyterian  within  five 
years,  and  no  other  such  churches  would  hereafter  be 
received.  No  rule  or  precedent  which  does  not  stand 


APPENDIX.  603 

Approved  by  both  the  bodies,  should  be  of  any  authority  in 
the  re-united  body,  except  as  affecting  property  rights. 
The  catalogues  of  the  publications  of  both  bodies  should  be 
revised,  so  as  to  exclude  all  invidious  references  to  pasfc 
controversies.  The  Theological  Seminaries,  it  was  sug- 
gested, might  transfer  their  connections  to  the  Synods 
adjacent,  all  Seminaries  being  counselled  to  come  under 
Assembly  or  Synodical  control.  The  second  Sabbath  in 
September,  was  also  named  as  a  day  of  prayer  for  divine 
guidance. 

None  of  these  "declarations"  were  overtured  to  the 
Presbyteries.  It  was  resolved  to  send  down  for  their 
action,  the  single  doctrinal  article  as  above  recited,  and 
each  Presbytery  was  ordered  to  vote  upon  it,  and  forward 
the  result  of  the  vote  to  the  stated  clerk  of  its  own  Assem- 
bly, before  the  1st  day  of  November,  following.  The 
two  Assemblies  would  adjourn  to  meet  in  the  city  of  Pitts- 
burg,  on  the  second  Wednesday  of  November,  when  and 
where,  the  stated  clerks  should  report  the  vote,  and  if  two- 
thirds  of  the  Presbyteries  in  each  branch  had  voted 
affirmatively,  the  union  would  be  of  binding  force,  and  the 
two  Assemblies  should  take  action  accordingly. 

This  report  on  reunion  was  adopted  in  the  New  School 
Assembly,  by  a  unanimous  rising  vote,  and  in  the  Old  School 
Assembly  by  276  to  8  votes.  The  vote  of  the  Presbyteries 
was  a  triumphant  endorsement  of  the  Assemblies'  plan.  Of 
the  one  hundred  and  forty-four  Old  School,  one  hundred 
and  twenty-eight  answered  in  the  affirmative,  and  three  in 
the  negative ;  of  the  one  hundred  and  thirteen  New  School 
every  one  sent  up  official  answers  in  the  affirmative.  There 
was  a  minority  of  one  in  each  of  three  New  School  Presby- 
teries, in  all  other  cases  the  vote  was  unanimous. 

Nothing  now  remained  but  to  give  formal  shape  to  the 
will  of  both  bodies,  thus  emphatically  expressed.  The  two 
Assemblies  accordingly  met  in  Pittsburg,  on  the  tenth  of 
November,  and  after  making  official  record  of  the  action 


601  APPENDIX. 

of  the  Presbyteries  and  communicating  the  resnlts  in  clue 
form  to  each  other,  dissolved  their  separate  sessions,  and 
amid  the  most  intense  manifestations  of  joy  and  en- 
thusiasm, united  in  a  joint  procession  and  a  meeting  in  tho 
Third  Presbytei'ian  Church,  where  several  hours  were  spent 
in  prayer,  singing  and  addresses  of  congratulation.  A 
resolution  was  adopted,  that  it  is  incumbent  upon  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  as  thus  united,  to  make  a  special 
offering  to  the  treasury  of  the  Lord  of  five  millions  of 
dollars,  as  a  memorial  of  the  reunion. 

Thus  closed  a  series  of  efforts,  stretching  over  a  period  of 
three  years  and  six  months.  The  fears  of  the  rigid  men  on 
the  one  side,  and  of  the  liberal  on  the  other,  exercised  a 
constant  influence  upon  the  deliberations,  delayed  the 
progress  of  the  movement,  and  shaped  somewhat  the  final 
form  of  the  basis.  But  while  they  could  not  prevent  the  re- 
sult upon  which  the  heart  of  the  Church,  in  both  branches, 
was  set,  it  is  wonderful  how  at  last  their  opposition  was 
almost  entirely  overcome,  and  that  the  acquiescence  in  the 
result  was  so  nearl}'  absolutely  universal.  The  usual  con- 
comitant of  an  Ecclesiastical  Union,  the  splitting  off  of 
fragments  large  or  small,  and  the  multiplying  rather  than 
the  diminution  of  sects,  was  spared  to  the  Christian  world 
in  this  case.  It  is  believed  not  an  individual  minister  or 
Church — unless  it  be  one  or  two  partly  congregational 
Churches — has  left  the  body  on  account  of  reunion.  The 
great  size,  the  wealth,  and  the  high  standing  in  the  Christian 
world  of  the  body  thus  formed,  exert  a  force  of  gravity 
which  counteracts  the  centrifugal  and  separatist  tendencies 
that  might  otherwise  appear.  Smaller  Presbyterian  bodies 
are  likely  rather  to  be  drawn  from  their  individual  orbits 
and  gatheied  like  asrolites  on  the  larger  body. 

The  influence  of  this  happy  settlement  of  protracted  and 
grievous  denominational  estrangements,  upon  the  divided 
parts  of  the  Protestant  Church  at  large,  must  prove  healt.li- 
ful.  On  all  hands,  this  greatest  of  Ecclesiastical  reunions 


APPENDIX.  605 

since  the  dividing  era  of  the  Reformation,  is  viewed  as  the 
harbinger  of  a  broader  charity,  and  a  wider  and  more  com- 
prehensive union  among  Christians. 

The  First  General  Assembly  of  the  reunited  Church  was 
held  in  the  First  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia,  of 
which  the  late  Rev.  Albert  Barnes,  was  pastor.  Tins  body, 
numbering  605  commissioners  and  delegates,  is  the 
largest  Presbyterian  Assembly,  ever  held  in  any  part  of 
the  Christian  world  and  represented  the  largest  Presbyterian 
Church  in  existence.  Accredited  representatives  from  the 
Presbyterian  Churches  in  England,  Scotland,  Ireland  and 
Canada,  besides  the  Lutheran,  Congregational  and  other 
bodies  in  America,  were  in  attendance.  A  full  daily  phono- 
graphic report  of  its  proceedings  was  published.  The 
necessary  work  of  redistricting  the  Synods,  and  of  consoli- 
dating the  Boards  and  Committees  was  conducted  with 
unusual  harmony  and  dispatch,  for  so  great  a  body.  No 
jar  or  friction  was  perceptible,  and  the  denominational  lines 
so  sharply  drawn,  a  third  of  a  century  ago,  disappeared 
under  the  magic  breath  of  the  spirit  of  Christian  love. 

The  statistics  of  the  United  Church  as  reported  at  this 
Assembly  are  as  follows ;  Synods,  51 ;  Presbyteries,  259 ; 
Candidates  and  Licentiates,  879;  Ministers,  4,238  ;  Churches, 
4,526 ;  added  to  the  Churches  by  profession,  32,003  ;  whole 
number  of  members,  446,561  ;  Baptisms,  26,598  ;  Members 
of  Sabbath  Schools,  448,857  ;  Contributions  to  Congrega- 
tional purposes,  $6, 416, 165  j  to  Missions  and  other  benevo- 
lent causes,  $2,024,000. 

51* 


COG  APPENDIX. 

THE  FREE  METHODIST  CHURCH. 

THE  Free  Methodist  Church  had  its  origin,  as  the  founders 
of  the  same  believed,  in  necessity,  and  not  in  choice.  It  did 
not  grow  out  of  a  secession,  nor  out  of  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  bring  about  a  reform  in  the  government  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  in  which  it  had  its  origin. 
Those  concerned  in  its  formation  never  expected  a  separation 
from  that  Church  until  they  were,  as  they  believed  unjustly, 
excluded  from  its  pale.  They  sought  redress  at  the  proper 
tribunal.  It  was  not  granted.  Even  a  candid  hearing  was 
denied  them.  Thus  thrown  out,  and  the  possibility  of  a  re- 
storation being  cut  off,  and  believing  that  God  still  called 
them  to  labor  for  the  salvation  of  souls,  they  had  no  alterna- 
tive but  to  form  a  new  organization.  In  doctrine,  discipline, 
and  spirit  they  were  Methodists,  and  hence  they  could  not 
offer  themselves  to  any  other  denomination.  The  issue  on 
which  they  were  thrust  out  was,  as  they  understood  it,  be- 
tween dead  formalism  and  the  life  and  power  of  godliness, 
and  so  they  could  not  feel  at  home  with  those  branches  of 
the  Methodist  family  into  whose  formation  other  question/ 
mainly  entered. 

A  convention  of  ministers  and  laymen  met  at  Pekin 
Niagara  county,  New  York,  on  the  23d  day  of  August,  1860 
and  adopted  a  Form  of  Discipline  and  Church  Government. 

The  superintendency  of  the  Church,  instead  of  being  in 
vested  in  a  board  of  bishops,  is  held  by  a  minister  or  minis 
ters  elected  to  such  office  by  each  recurring  General  Confer 
ence,  which  is  held  once  in  four  years.  The  supervision  of 
the  interests  of  the  several  districts  of  each  Annual  Confer 
once  is  committed  to  a  minister  elected  to  the  office  by  his 
Annual  Conference,  who  is  named  chairman  of  the  district, 
and  may,  in  connection  with  the  same,  be  a  preacher  in 
charge  of  a  circuit,  or  may  travel  at  large  on  his  district, 
if  so  directed  by  his  Annual  Conference.  The  same  preacher 
mav  be  chairman  of  more  than  one  district.  The  system  is 


APPENDIX.  607 

that  of  an  itinerant  ministry,  the  appointments  being  made 
annually,  by  a  stationing  committee  composed  of  the  chair- 
men of  the  several  districts,  and  an  equal  number  of  the  lay 
delegates  of  each  Annual  Conference,  which  lay  members  of 
the  committee  are  elected  byvballot. 

The  ministerial  and  lay  elements  enter  equally  into  the 
formation  of  the  General  and  Annual  Conferences. 

The  Quarterly  Conferences  of  the  Church  have  jurisdiction 
over  an  entire  district,  and  are  composed  of  the  itinerant 
and  local  preachers,  exhorters,  stewards,  and  class  leaders  of 
each  circuit  in  the  district,  and  the  chairman  of  the  district 
is  president  of  the  same. 

The  temporal  and  spiritual  interests  of  each  circuit  ara 
under  the  advisement  of  an  official  board  elected  from  it* 
membership,  at  the  meeting  of  which  the  preacher  in  charge 
is  expected  to  preside. 

That  the  peculiar  features  of  this  body  of  Christians  may 
be  better  understood,  the  following  questions  are  subjoined, 
which  are  proposed  to  those  who  wish  to  unite  in  Church 
fellowship  with  them. 

The  candidate,  having  met  in  class  six  months  on  proba- 
tion, and  having  been  baptized,  must  give  satisfactory  an- 
swers to  them  before  being  admitted  into  full  connection. 

1.  Have  you  the  witness  of  THE  SPIRIT  that  you  are  a 
child  of  God? 

2.  Have  you  that  perfect  love  which  casteth  out  fear  ?    If 
not,  will  you  diligently  seek  until  you  obtain  it  ? 

3.  Is  it  your  purpose  to  devote  yourself  the  remainder  of 
your  life  wholly  to  the  service  of  God,  doing  good  to  youi 
fellow-men  and  working  out  your  own  salvation  with  feai 
and  trembling? 

4.  Will  you  for  ever  lay  aside  all  superfluous  ornaments, 
and  adorn  yourself  in  modest  apparel,  with  shamefaced  ness 
and  sobriety,  not  with  broidered  hair,  cr  gold,  or  pearls,  01 
costly  array,  but,  which  becometh  those  professing  godliness, 
with  good  works  ? 

5.  Will  vou  abstain  from  connection  with  all  secret  socia- 


608  APPENDIX. 

ties,  keeping  yourself  free  to  follow  the  will  of  the  Lord  in 
all  things? 

6.  Do  you  subscribe  to  our  Articles  of  Religion,  our  General 
Rules,  and  our  Discipline,  and  are  you  willing,  to  be  governed 
by  the  same  ? 

7.  Have  you  Christian  fellowship  and  love  for  the  members 
of  this  society,  and  will  you  assist  them,  as  God  shall  giv* 
you  ability,  in  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  Lord  ? 

The  person  giving  affirmative  answers  to  the  above  ques- 
tions shall,  with  the  consent  of  three-fourths  of  all  the  mem- 
bers present  at  a  society  meeting,  be  admitted  to  all  the  privi- 
leges of  a  member.  Any  person  in  good  standing  in  any 
evangelical  church  may  be  received  into  full  connection,  upon 
his  meeting  the  other  requirements  of  this  section,  without 
having  been  on  probation  in  our  Church. 

The  houses  of  worship  of  this  denomination  are  built  with- 
out any  adornment  of  spire  or  stained-glass  windows,  and  the 
Beats  are  neither  sold  nor  rented.  The  singing  is  done  by  the 
congregation,  without  the  aid  of  a  choir  or  instrumental  music. 
All  the  modern  devices  for  raising  money  so  common  in  this 
age,  such  as  festivals,  fairs,  oyster-suppers,  pic-nics,  lotteries, 
excursions,  etc.,  are  totally  ignored  by  this  "  peculiar  people,' 
as  they  believe  in  giving  directly  to  benevolent  objects,  and 
from  the  sole  motive  of  obedience  to  the  requirements  of 
God,  as  revealed  in  his  Holy  Word. 

The  statistics  of  this  Church  are  as  follows,  viz. :  Five  Con- 
ferences, which  were  organized  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
named,  viz. :  Genesee,  Illinois,  Susquehanna,  Michigan  and 
Kansas  and  Missouri  Conference.  Travelling  preachers,  128, 
local  preachers,  126,  members,  including  probationers,  6756. 
Value  of  Church  property,  $234,700.  A  weekly  paper,  called 
the  "Free  Methodist,"  is  published  in  New  York  City,  by 
Joseph  Mackey,  and  a  monthly  magazine  called  the  "  Earnest 
Christian,"  by  Rev.  E.  T.  Roberts,  at  Rochester,  New  York 
A  school  called  the  "  Chili  Seminary,"  is  also  in  successful 
operation,  located  in  North  Chili,  Monroe  county,  New 
York. 


APPENDIX.  609 


THE  SOUTHERN  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH. 

THIS  body — represented  by  "The  General  Assembly  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  the  United  States"  and  consisting  of  some  1500 
churches,  1000  ministers  and  100,000  communicants — separated 
from  the  Old  School  body  and  organized  a  distinct  Assembly  at 
Augusta,  Georgia,  December,  1861. 

The  occasion  which  compelled  this  separation  was  a  political  de- 
liverance of  the  General  Assembly  at  Philadelphia,  on  the  28th  May, 
1861,  declaring  that,  "  in  the  spirit  of  Christian  patriotism,"  the 
Assembly  "  do  hereby  declare  and  acknowledge  our  obligation  to 
promote  and  perpetuate,  so  far  as  in  us  lies,  the  integrity  of  these 
United  States,  and  to  strengthen,  uphold  and  encourage  the  Fed- 
eral Government  in  the  exercise  of  all  its  functions  under  our 
noble  constitution,  and  to  this  constitution  in  all  its  provisions, 
requirements  and  principles  we  profess  our  unabated  loyalty." 

That  such  a  deliverance  by  a  Church  court  involves  a  dangerous 
usurpation  of  power,  and  is  inconsistent  with  the  fundamental 
idea  of  Presbyterianism,  was  then  the  deliberate  judgment,  not 
only  of  the  Southern  Presbyterians,  who  were  thereby  obliged  to 
renounce  either  their  allegiance  to  their  de  facto  civil  govern- 
ment or  their  allegiance  to  their  Church,  but  the  judgment  also 
of  the  most  enlightened  and  thoughtful  men  in  the  Northern 
Church. 

Dr.  Charles  Hodge,  of  Princeton,  with  fifty-seven  others,  includ- 
ing the  Moderator  of  the  Assembly,  entered  their  most  earnest  pro- 
test against  the  right  of  the  General  Assembly  to  make  any  such 
political  deliverance  in  the  following,  among  other  emphatic 
terms : 

"  We  protest,  because  we  deny  the  right  of  the  General  Assembly 
to  decide  the  political  question  to  what  government  the  allegiance 
of  Presbyterians,  as  citizens,  is  due,  and  its  right  to  make  that  de- 
cision a  condition  of  membership  in  our  Church." 

"  That  the  paper  adopted  by  the  Assembly  does  decide  the  po- 
litical question  just  stated  is,  in  our  judgment,  undeniable.  .  .  . 
That  the  action  of  the  General  Assembly  in  the  premises  does  not 
only  decide  the  political  question  referred  to,  but  makes  that  de- 

20 


610  APPEIfDIX. 

vision  a  term  of  membership  in  our  Church,  is  no  less  clear.  .  , 
It  puts  into  the  mouth  of  all  represented  in  this  body  a  declara- 
tion of  loyalty  and  allegiance  to  the  Federal  Government.  But 
such  a  declaration  made  by  our  members  in  what  are  called  the 
acceded  States  is  treasonable.  Presbyterians  under  the  jurisdictiou 
or  those  States  cannot  make  this  declaration.  They  are  therefore 
ibrced  to  choose  between  allegiance  to  the  State  and  allegiance  to 
»,ue.  Church." 

"  The  General  Assembly,  in  thus  deciding  a  political  question,  ' 
and  in  making  that  decision  practically  a  condition  of  membership 
in  the  Church,  has,  in  our  judgment,  violated  the  constitution  of  the 
Church  and  usurped  the  prerogatives  of  the  divine  Master" 

With  these  views  of  Dr.  Hodge  in  his  protest  the  ecclesiastics 
of  the  Southern  Church  fully  concurred.  In  a  solemn  "  Address 
to  all  the  churches  of  Jesus  Christ  throughout  the  earth"  issued  by  the 
Southern  General  Assembly  at  its  organization  as  explanatory  of 
the  causes  of  their  separation,  December,  1861,  it  is  declared : 

"The  only  conceivable  condition,  therefore,  upon  which  the 
Church  of  the  North  and  the  South  could  remain  together  as  one 
body,  with  any  prospect  of  success,  is  the  rigorous  exclusion  of 
the  questions  and  passions  of  the  forum  from  its  halls  of  debate. 
This  is  what  always  ought  to  be  done.  The  provinces  of  Church 
and  State  are  perfectly  distinct,  and  the  one-  has  no  right  to  usurp 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  other.  The  State  is  a  natural  institute, 
founded  in  the  constitution  of  man  as  moral  and  social,  and  de- 
signed to  realize  the  idea  of  justice.  It  is  the  society  of  rights. 
The  Church  is  a  supernatural  institution,  founded  in  the  facts  of 
redemption,  and  is  designed  to  realize  the  idea  of  grace.  It  is  the 
society  of  the  redeemed.  The  State  aims  at  social  order,  the 
Church  at  spiritual  holiness.  The  State  looks  to  the  visible  and 
outward,  the  Church  is  concerned  for  the  invisible  and  inward. 
The  badge  of  the  State's  authority  is  the  sword,  by  which  it  be- 
comes a  terror  to  evil-doers  and  a  praise  to  them  that  do  well. 
The  badge  of  the  Church's  authority  is  the  keys,  by  which  it 
opens  and  shuts  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  according  as  men  are 
believing  or  impenitent.  The  power  of  the  Church  is  exclusively 
spiritual,  that  of  the  State  includes  the  exercise  of  force.  The 
Constitution  of  the  Church  is  a  Divine  revelation,  the  Constitution 
of  the  State  must  be  determined  by  human  reason  and  the  course 
of  providential  events.  The  Church  has  no  right  to  construct  01 


APPENDIX.  611 

modify  a  government  for  the  State,  and  the  State  has  no  right  t* 
frame  a  creed  or  polity  for  the  Church. 

Had  these  principles  been  steadily  maintained  by  the  Assembly 
at  Philadelphia,  it  is  possible  that  the  ecclesiastical  separation  ot 
the  North  and  South  might  have  been  deferred  for  years  to  come 
Our  Presbyteries,  many  of  them,  clung  with  tenderness  to  the  rec- 
ollections of  the  past.  Sacred  memories  gathered  around  that 
venerable  Church  which  had  breasted  many  a  storm  and  trained 
our  fathers  for  glory." 

It  will  be  perceived,  therefore,  that  the  thoughtful  men,  both  of 
the  Northern  and  the  Southern  sections  of  the  Church,  practically 
concurred  in  the  judgment  that  the  deliverance  of  1861  compelled 
the  separation.  Nor  was  the  issue  of  slavery  or  anti-slavery  really 
involved  in  the  primary  cause  of  the  separation,  as  has  been  so 
persistently  asserted.  For  in  the  same  "  Address  "  the  Southern 
Assembly  declares,  in  December,  1861,  before  the  question  of  slavery 
had  become  an  issue  of  the  war : 

"  In  the  first  place,  we  would  have  it  distinctly  understood  that, 
in  our  ecclesiastical  capacity,  we  are  neither  the  friends  nor  the 
foes  of  slavery — that  is  to  say,  we  have  no  commission  either  to 
propagate  or  abolish  it.  The  policy  of  its  existence  or  non-existence 
is  a  question  which  exclusively  belongs  to  the  State.  We  have  no 
right,  as  a  Church,  to  enjoin  it  as  a  duty  or  to  condemn  it  as  sin. 
Our  business  is  with  the  duties  that  spring  from  the  relation — the 
duties  of  the  masters  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  their  slaves  on  the 
other.  These  duties  we  are  to  proclaim  and  enforce  with  spir- 
itual sanctions." 

Such,  then,  were  the  grounds  of  this  separation  amid  the  open- 
ing strifes  of  the  unhappy  civil  war.  Obviously,  this  schism  in 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  like  that  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  might, 
by  a  kind  and  judicious  policy,  have  been  healed  at  the  close  of 
the  war.  But  so  far  from  this,  the  General  Assembly  at  Pittsburg, 
in  1865,  as  though  determined  to  give  permanency  to  the  separa- 
tion, erected  in  the  following  ordinance  an  impassable  barrier  be- 
tween the  two  bodies : 

"  It  is  hereby  ordered  that  all  our  Presbyteries  examine  every 
minister  applying  for  admission  from  any  Presbytery  or  other  ec- 
clesiastical body  in  the  Southern  States  on  the  following  points : 

"  1.  Whether  he  has  in  any  way,  directly  or  indirectly,  of  his  own 
free  will  and  consent,  or  without  external  constraint,  been  con- 


612  APPENDIX. 

cerned  at  any  time  in  aiding  or  countenancing  the  rebellion  and 
the  war  which  has  been  waged  against  the  United  States ;  and  if 
it  be  found  by  his  own  confession,  or  from  sufficient  testimony, 
that  he  has  been  so  concerned,  that  he  be  required  to  confess  and 
forsake  his  sin  in  this  regard  before  he  shall  be  received. 

"  2.  Whether  he  holds  that  the  system  of  negro  slavery  in  the 
South  is  a  Divine  institution,  and  that  it  is  'the  peculiar  mission 
of  the  Southern  Church  to  conserve  the  institution  of  slavery  as 
there  maintained,'  and  if  it  be  found  that  he  holds  either  of  these 
doctrines,  that  he  be  not  received  without  renouncing  and  forsaking 
these  errors. 

"  3.  Church  sessions  are  also  ordered  to  examine  all  applicants 
for  church-membership  by  persons  from  the  Southern  States,  or 
who  have  been  living  in  the  South  since  the  rebellion,  concerning 
their  conduct  and  principles  on  the  points  above  specified ;  and  if 
it  be  found  that  of  their  pwn  free  will  they  have  taken  up  arms 
against  the  United  States,  or  that  they  hold  slavery  to  be  an  ordi- 
nance of  God,  as  thus  stated,  such  persons  shall  not  be  admitted  to 
the  communion  of  the  Church  till  they  give  evidence  of  repent- 
ance for  their  sin,  and  renounce  their  error." 

It  has  been  claimed,  however,  and  asserted  not  only  by  the  com- 
missioners sent  to  Louisville  in  1870,  but  even  officially  declared, 
by  implication,  in  a  minute  of  the  Northern  Assembly  of  1870, 
that  these  remarkable  ordinances  of  1865,  together  with  all  that 
resulted  from  them  in  the  expulsion  of  the  synods  of  Kentucky 
and  Missouri  in  1866-7,  was  in  effect  repealed  by  the  "  concurrent 
declaration  of  the  two  Assemblies  that  met  in  New  York  (prior  to 
re-union),  that  no  rule  or  precedent  which  does  not  stand  approved 
by  both  bodies  shall  be  of  any  authority  in  the  reunited  body." 
But  aside  from  the  incongruity  of  any  such  indirect  and  merely 
incidental  repeal  of  an  act,  or  series  of  acts,  impugning  the  Chris- 
tian standing  of  a  vast  body  of  people,  this  claim  of  repeal  for 
lack  of  concurrence  by  both  Assemblies  very  remarkably  overlooks 
the  fact  that  while  the  Old  School  Assembly  at  Pittsburg,  in  1865, 
was  enacting  the  extraordinary  ordinance  for  examination  just 
cited,  the  New  School  Assembly  at  Brooklyn  the  very  same  week 
also  enacted  the  following : 

"  In  the  event  that  any  of  the  ministers  referred  to  in  the  over- 
ture (i.  e.,  Southern  ministers)  shall  apply  for  admission  into 
these  Presbyteries,  the  assembly  advises  the  Presbyteries  not  to 


APPENDIX.  (J13 

jdmit  them,  or  in  any  way  recognize  them  as  ambassadors  of  the  Cross 
of  Christ,  until  they  have  given  satisfactory  evidence  that  they  have 
sincerely  repented  of  this  sin"  (of  aiding  or  countenancing  the 
rebellion). 

Thus  it  appears  that,  in  fact,  the  "  concurrent  declaration  "  does 
not  meet  the  case  of  the  excluding  ordinances  of  1865  at  all,  since 
these  ordinances  "do  stand  approved  by  both  of  the  bodies."  And, 
therefore,  as  the  Southern  churches  were  compelled  originally  to 
separate,  so  they  are  still  compelled,  under  the  ordinances  of  1865- 
6-7,  to  make  the  separation  permanent. 

It  would  tend  only  to  mislead  the  Christian  public,  however,  to 
«top  here  and  leave  the  jmpression  that  the  differences  which  sepa- 
rate the  Southern  from  the  Northern  Presbyterians  are  chiefly 
these  questions  of  ecclesiastical  punctilio.  For,  though  holding 
the  same  symbols  of  faith  and  Church  order,  and  even  the  same 
constitutional  rules,  the  issues  between  them  will  be  found,  on  ex- 
amination, to  involve  principles  fundamental  in  the  Presbyterian 
faith  and  order.  Nor  can  any  pressure  of  popular  sentiment  in 
favor  of  union  ever  harmonize  such  differences.  The  true  concep- 
tion of  Christian  brotherly  affection  is  not  the  withdrawal  of  all 
protest  against  error  and  witness  for  the  truth,  but  of  peaceful 
separation  when  differences  are  fundamental.  The  true  model  of 
Christian  brotherhood  is  Abraham,  the  Father  of  the  visible 
Church.  "  Let  there  be  no  strife,  I  pray  thee.  Separate  thyself 
from  me :  go  to  the  right  or  left,  and  I  will  take  the  opposite  di* 
rection." 

So  far  from  being  mere  inconsiderable  differences  arising  from 
temporary  ill-humor  or  the  idiosyncrasies  of  a  few  prominent  men, 
as  the  popular  judgment  has  it,  and  as  men  of  feeble  convictions 
and  latitudinarian  views  of  the  Church  regard  it,  the  differences 
between  the  Southern  and  the  Northern  bodies  of  Presbyterians 
as  now  constituted  are  as  wide  as  the  differences  between  either 
and  the  other  evangelical  churches. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  well  known  that  prior  to  1861,  and  even 
as  far  back  as  the  disruption  of  1837,  the  Southern  portion  of  the 
Old  School  Presbyterian  Church  (with  a  few  exceptions  on  either 
side)  was  even  far  more  earnest,  more  uncompromising  and  more 
united  in  antagonism  to  the  "  Broad  Church  "  errors  of  the  New 
School  body  in  regard  to  the  doctrine  and  order  than  the  Northern 
portion.  Indeed,  but  for  the  Southern  portion  of  the  Church,  the 
52 


614  APPENDIX. 

testimony  of  1837  could  never  have  been  maintained.  Accord- 
ingly, it  will  be  observed,  in  reviewing  the  proceedings  of  the  ten 
years  subsequent  to  1860,  that  the  movement  first  to  exclude,  and 
then  to  keep  out,  the  Southern  Churches,  proceeded  paripassu  with 
the  movement  for  bringing  back  the  New  School  body.  The  inti- 
mation of  any  such  purpose  of  reunion  was  indeed  denounced  as 
an  uncharitable  suspicion  in  1861-2,  but  it  will  be  difficult  to  find 
any  other  solution  of  the  extraordinary  ordinances  of  1865,  and 
the  no  less  extraordinary  expulsion  of  the  synods  of  Kentucky 
and  Missouri  for  resisting  these  ordinances,  than  that  the  motive 
for  and  the  purpose  of  these  ordinances  was,  by  keeping  out  the 
South,  to  break  down  the  power  of  resistance  in  the  Church  against 
the  reunion  with  the  New  School  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  tes- 
timony of  1837. 

It  is  of  no  force,  as  against  this  view  of  the  case,  that  the 
Southern  Assembly  had  in  1864  received  the  United  Synod  (New 
School  of  the  Southern  States),  for  that  union  was  made  really 
upon  the  basis  of  a  solemn  declaration  in  regard  to  the  issues  in- 
volved in  the  conflicts  of  1837 — viz. :  "  Concerning  The  fall  of  man 
and  original  sin — The  imputation  of  sin  and  of  Righteousness — The 
Divine  permission  of  sin — The  Atonement — Regeneration — Justifica- 
tion and  the  Visible  Church  as  Christ's  agent  for  propagating  the 
gospel"  Which  declaration,  framed  at  a  conference  of  both  parties 
exhibiting  an  entire  agreement  of  views,  was  reported  to  the  As- 
sembly with  the  following  preface  stating  its  purpose: 

"Inasmuch  as  some  have  been  supposed  to  hold  the  system  of 
doctrines  and  Church  order  in  different  senses,  the  General  As- 
sembly and  the  United  Synod  do  further  adopt  the  following  Dec- 
laration, touching  former  grounds  of  debate,  in  order  to  manifest 
oui  hearty  agreement,  to  remove  suspicions  and  offences,  to  restore 
full  confidence  between  brethren,  and  to  honor  God's  saving 
truth." 

And  though  this  "Declaration"  was  not  formally  made  the  basis 
of  a  union,  because  it  was  held  that  the  General  Assembly  has  no 
right  to  adopt  any  other  doctrinal  basis  than  the  standards,  yet  it 
was  an  abundant  guarantee  to  the  Assembly  (having  been  ap- 
proved by  the  Presbyteries  on  both  sides)  that  such  union  involved 
no  withdrawal  of  the  testimony  of  1837. 

Whatever,  therefore,  were  the  differences  which  separated  the 
Old  School  and  New  School  bodies  for  thirty  years,  the  same  dif- 


APPENDIX.  61& 

Terences  now  separate  the  Southern  from  the  reunited  Northern 
body. 

In  the  second  place,  anterior  to  1861,  as  well  as  since,  the 
Southern  Presbyterian  churches  have  held  in  a  much  fuller  sense 
than  the  Northern  the  jure  divino  view  of  Presbyterianism.  This  is 
the  view  universally  taught  in  their  schools  and  held  generally  by 
their  pastors  and  Church  courts.  With  exceptions  on  both  sides, 
the  issue  between  the  Southern  ecclesiastics  and  the  Northern  has 
been  the  same  as  that  which  created  the  rupture  between  tlie 
Westminster  Assembly  and  the  Parliament  which  called  it  to 
advise  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  English  Church.  While  the 
Westminster  Assembly,  after  thorough  examination  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, concluded  that  the  Presbyterial  Government  of  the  Church 
and  its  ordinances  were  by  direct  authority  of  Christ  the  King, 
the  Parliament  stubbornly  refused  to  accept  Presbytery  on  any 
other  ground  than  that  "  it  is  lawful  and  agreeable  to  the  word 
of  God  that  the  Church  be  governed  by  congregational,  classical 
and  synodical  assemblies."  This  discrepancy  of  views  seems  to 
have  in  some  degree  crept  into  the  standards  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  as  accepted  in  the  United  States.  While  the  Confession 
of  Faith  (chap.  30)  and  the  Larger  Catechism  (Ques.  45)  declares 
fully  with  the  Westminster  Assembly,  "The  Lord  Jesus  as  King 
and  Head  of  his  Church  hath  therein  appointed  a  government," 
etc.,  and — 

"Christ  executeth  the  office  of  a  King  in  calling  out  of  the 
world  a  people  to  himself,  and  giving  them  officers,  laws  and  cen- 
sures whereby  h,^  visibly  governs  them." 

Yet  on  the  other  hand  the  "Form  of  Government"  (chap.  8) 
seems  to  speak  rather  the  non-committal  language  of  the  Parlia- 
ment: "We  hold  it  to  be  expedient  and  agreeable  to  Scripture  and  (he 
practice  of  the  primitive  Christians  that  the  Church  be  governed  by 
congregational,  Presbyterial  and  synodical  assemblies." 

Now,  the  Southern  churches  may  be  said  to  stand  by  the  jure 
divino  theory  of  the  Confession  of  Faith  and  the  Catechism,  while 
the  Northern  churches  accept  the  looser  expediency  view  of  Chap. 
8ch  of  the  "Form  of  Government."  The  wide  practical  diver- 
gence of  the  two  views  is  apparent  in  all  the  more  notable  utter- 
ances of  the  Northern  and  Southern  Assemblies  after  the  separa- 
tion. 

Thus,  the  Southern  Assembly  declares  in  reference  to  the  natural 


616'  APPENDIX. 

functions  and  practical  relations  of  the  Church:  "In  regard  <« 
conflicts  between  existing  governments,  or  as  to  movements  in 
society,  peaceful  or  otherwise,  to  effect  political  changes,  the 
Church  as  such  has  no  more  control  over  them  than  it  has  over 
the  polls  of  the  country.  If  it  has  authority  to  uphold  on  the  one 
side,  it  has  equal  power  to  condemn  on  the  other ;  if  to  suppress  a 
political  movement,  then  also  to  instigate  it.  In  truth,  it  has  nei- 
ther, and  to  assert  the  contrary  is  to  corrupt  the  Church  in  its 
principles,  for  ever  embroil  it  with  the  strifes  of  the  world  and 
plunge  it  headlong  into  ruin."  (See  Minutes,  1865,  page  371.) 

"  The  Assembly  would  declare  anew  the  doctrine  of  our  time- 
honored  Confession,  that  Christ  alone  is  King  and  Head  of  his 
Church,  and  that  all  ordinances  of  worship  binding  on  us  are  or- 
dained by  him  alone;  that  there  are  two  commonwealths,  equally 
appointed  by  God,  the  civil,  whose  object  is  to  protect  the  persons 
and  property  and  promote  the  well-being  of  men  as  they  are  mem- 
bers of  civil  society ;  and  the  religious,  the  commonwealth  of  Israel, 
whose  object  it  is  to  train  men,  as  they  are  sinners,  for  glory  and 
immortality.  Although  these  exist  together  in  this  world,  each  i^ 
independent  of  the  other  in  its  own  sphere."  (See  Minutes,  1806, 
pp.  13,  14.) 

"This  argument,  of  visibly  realizing  the  spiritual  unity  of  the 
Cord's  people,  is  enforced  by  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the 
times  in  which  we  live,  and  by  the  nature  of  the  controversies 
which  now  agitate  the  Church.  The  old  conflict  for  the  spiritual- 
ity and  independence  of  the  Church  is,  to  the  amazement  of  many, 
renewed  in  our  day  and  upon  our  own  continent.  Tae  battle  fought 
generations  ago,  by  the  Melvilles,  Gillespies  and  Hendersons  of 
Scotland,  is  reopened  with  singular  violence,  and  the  old  banner 
is  again  floating  over  us  with  its  historic  inscription,  "  For  Christ's 
covenant  and  crown."  Upon  no  one  subject  is  the  mind  of  this 
Assembly  more  clearly  ascertained,  upon  no  one  doctrine  is  there 
a  more  solid  or  perfect  agreement  amongst  those  whom  this  Assem- 
bly represents,  than  the  non-secular  and  non-political  character  of 
the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ."  {See  Minutes,  1866,  pp.  30,  31.) 

An  elaborate  declaration  of  the  doctrines  and  principles  of  the 
Southern  Churches,  prepared  by  the  synod  of  Kentucky  and  ac- 
cepted by  the  Assembly  of  1867,  may  be  found  in  the  appendix  to 
the  minutes  of  that  year,  and  in  Vol.  10th  of  Wilson's  Historical 
Almarfae,  pp.  297-316.  A  careful  study  of  this  paper  must  satisfy 


APPENDIX.  617 

any  one  acquainted  with  the  views  of  the  Northern  Presbyterians 
that  the  difference  between  the  two  bodies  is  radical  as  to  some  of 
the  moat  practical  questions  of  Christian  duty.  There  is  room  for 
but  a  single  extract : 

"The doctrine  of  the  kingly  office  of  Christ  is  no  abstract  theory 
of  theology,  but  of  the  very  first  practical  importance  in  the  gospel 
system,  since  to  his  office  as  a  king,  his  prophetic  and  priestly 
offices  stand  related  as  means  to  an  end.  He  is  a  teaching  prophet 
and  an  atoning  priest  that  He  may  be  a  reigning  king.  And  His 
kingly  office  stands  related  to  the  government  and  discipline  of 
the  Church  as  His  prophetic  and  priestly  offices  to  the  ordinances 
of  the  word  and  sacraments.  While,  indeed,  the  acceptance  of 
the  doctrine  of  His  kingly  office  is  not  essential  to  the  faith  that  ia 
unto  salvation  in  the  sense  in  which  the  acceptance  of  the  doc- 
trine of  His  priestly  office  as  exhibiting  our  justifying  righteous- 
ness is  essential,  yet  the  obligation  to  present  truly  the  doctrine 
of  Christ's  kingly  office  in  the  government  and  discipline  of  the 
Church  to  the  faith  of  His  people  is  of  like  force  with  the  obliga- 
tion to  present  truly  the  doctrine  of  His  prophetic  and  priestly 
offices  in  the  word  and  sacraments. 

Therefore,  the  avoidance  of  all  admixture  of  human  maxims, 
policies  and  expediencies  in  the  administration  of  the  government 
and  discipline  of  the  Church  is  a  duty  of  the  same  obligation  as 
to  avoid  the  admixture  of  human  philosophies  and  theories  with 
the  dispensation  of  the  word,  or  of  human  fancies  with  the  dis- 
pensation of  the  sacraments. 

It  is  therefore  not  only  incompetent  to  the  Church  courts,  but 
positively  a  perversion  of  the  truth,  that  they  shall  assume  to  con- 
sider and  determine  any  other  questions  than  those  which  relate 
to  the  government,  order  and  discipline  of  Christ's  visible  king- 
dom ;  or  to  determine  these  on  grounds  aside  from  the  word  of 
God ;  or  to  speak  in  Christ's  name  and  by  his  authority,  otherwise 
than  to  the  faith  and  conscience  of  His  people,  concerning  things 
to  be  obeyed  as  enjoined  by  the  law  of  Christ. 

Therefore,  the  Church  has  manifestly  no  commission  either  to 
discharge  any  functions  of  the  State,  or  to  direct,  advise  or  assist 
the  State ;  nor  has  the  Church  any  light  in  regard  to  the  affairs  of 
the  State  which  the  State  has  not  already ;  nor,  since  her  authority 
is  spiritual  and  resting  on  moral  suasion  only,  has  it  any  adapta- 
tion to  the  purposes  of  a  government  of  force.  Neither  can  the 


APPENDIX. 

have  any  commission  from  God  to  discharge  the  functions  of 
the  Church,  nor  the  ability  to  do  so ;  since— aside  from  the  fact 
that  its  compulsory  power  is  inapplicable  to  things  of  religion  — 
eren  though  the  State  may  have  the  advantage  of  the  inspired 
word  of  God  current  among  its  citizens  to  give  additional  clear- 
ness and  force  to  the  teachings  of  nature  and  reason,  yet  the  State 
has  not  the  special  illumination  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  alone 
can  interpret  the  word  for  the  purposes  of  the  Church.  Nor  is 
anything  plainer  from  experience  than  that  the  unconverted  states- 
man, accepting  the  word  of  God  intellectually  merely,  however  he 
may  thereby  be  made  wiser  as  to  natural  things,  is  not  made  more 
competent  to  legislate  for  the  Church  than  though  he  were  merely 
a  refined  and  enlightened  Pagan.  Nor  has  anything  more  certainly 
tended  to  enfeeble  the  spiritual  life  of  the  Church  than  the  mis- 
take of  courting  the  favor  and  seeking  the  alliance  of  rulers  and 
statesmen,  who  merely  accept  intellectually,  and  therefore  treat  re- 
spectfully the  word  of  Christ  and  His  ordinances,  as  though  thereby 
the  kingdom  of  Christ  can  be  strengthened." 

It  may  serve  to  complete  this  side  of  the  proposed  contrast  to 
cite  the  following  extract  from  the  official  response  of  the  Assembly 
of  1870  at  Louisville  to  the  proposition  for  a  renewal  of  correspond- 
ence and  ultimately  organic  reunion : 

1.  "Both  the  wings  of  the  now  united  Assembly,  during  their 
separate  existence  before  the  fusion,  did  fatally  complicate  them- 
selves with  the  State  in  political  utterances  deliberately  pronounced 
year  after  year,  and  which,  in  our  judgment,  were  a  sad  betrayal 
of  the  cause  and  kingdom  of  our  common  Lord  and  Head.  We 
believe  it  to  be  solemnly  incumbent-  upon  the  Northern  Presby- 
terian Church,  not  with  reference  to  us,  but  before  the  Christian 
world,  before  our  Divine  Master  and  King,  to  purge  itself  of  this 
error,  and  by  public  proclamation  of  the  truth  to  place  the  crown 
once  more  upon  the  head  of  Jesus  Christ  as  the  alone  King  in 
Zion.  In  default  of  which  the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church, 
which  has  already  suffered  much  in  maintaining  the  independence 
and  spirituality  of  the  Redeemer's  kingdom  upon  earth,  feels  con- 
strained to  bear  public  testimony  against  this  defection  of  our  late 
associates  from  the  truth.  Nor  can  we,  by  official  correspondence 
even,  consent  to  blunt  the  edge  of  this  our  testimony  concerning 
the  very  nature  and  mission  of  the  Church  as  a  purely  spiritual 
body  among  men. 


APPENDIX.  619 

2.  The  union  now  consummated  between  the  Old  and  New 
School  Assemblies,  North,  was  accomplished  by  methods  which, 
in  our  judgment,  involve  a  total  surrender  of  all  the  great  testi- 
monies of  the  Church  for  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  grace  at  a 
time  when  the  victory  of  truth  over  error  hung  long  in  the  balance. 
The  united  Assembly  stands,  of  necessity,  upon  an  allowed  latitude 
of  interpretation  of  the  standards,  and  must  come  at  length  to  em- 
brace nearly  all  shades  of  doctrinal  belief."  Turning  now  to  the 
contemporaneous  deliverances  of  the  Northern  Assemblies,  the  ir- 
reconcilable difference  of  views  between  the  two  becomes  at  once 
manifest. 

The  action  of  the  Old  School  Assembly  in  1861  has  been  already 
cited.  Here  is  the  action  of  1862,  assuming  to  instruct  the  civil 
government : 

"  Tt  is  the  clear  and  solemn  duty  of  the  national  government 
to  preserve,  at  whatever  cost,  the  national  Union  and  Constitution, 
to  maintain  the  laws  in  their  supremacy,  to  crush  force  by  force," 
etc.,  etc.  (Mnutes  Old  School  Assembly,  1862,  p.  625.) 

In  the  same  year  the  General  Assembly  (New  School)  gave 
utterance  to  the  following : 

"Resolved,  4.  That  while  we  have  been  utterly  shocked  at  the 
deep  depravity  of  the  men  who  have  planned  and  matured  this 
rebellion,  and  who  are  now  clad  in  arms,  manifested  in  words  and 
deeds,  there  is  another  class  found  in  the  loyal  States  who  have 
excited  a  still  deeper  loathing — some  in  Congress,  some  high  in 
civil  life  and  some  in  the  ordinary  walks  of  business — who  never 
utter  a  manly  thought  or  opinion  in  favor  of  the  government  but 
they  follow  it,  by  way  of  comment,  with  two  or  three  smooth 
apologies  for  Southern  insurrectionists,  presenting  the  difference 
between  an  open  and  avowed  enemy  in  the  field  and  a  secret  and 
insidious  foe  in  the  bosom  of  his  own  family. 

Resolved,  5.  That,  in  our  opinion,  this  whole  insurrectionary 
movement  can  be  traced  to  one  primordial  root,  and  to  one  only 
AFRICAN  SLAVERY,  and  the  love  of  it,  and  a  determination  to 
make  it  perpetual,  and  while  we  look  upon  this  war  as  having 
one  grand  end  in  view — the  restoration  of  the  Union  by  crush- 
ing out  the  last  living  and  manifested  fibre  of  rebellion— .we  hold 
that  everything — the  institution  of  slavery,  if  need  be — must  be 
made  to  bend  to  this  one  great  purpose,  and  while  under  the  influ- 
ence of  humanity  and  Christian  benevr lence  we  may  commiserate 


620  APPENDIX. 

the  condition  of  the  ruined  rebels  once  in  fraternity  with  our- 
selves, but  now — should  the  case  occur — despoiled  of  all  thai 
makes  the  world  dear  to  them,  we  must  be  at  the  same  time  con 
strained  to  feel  that  the  retribution  has  been  self-inflicted,  and 
tnusl  add,  " Fiat  justitia,  mat  ccelum."  (Minutes,  1862.) 

And  in  1863  to  the  following:  "That  the  government  of  these 
United  States,  as  provided  for  by  the  Constitution,  is  not  only 
founded  upon  the  great  doctrine  of  human  rights  as  vested  by 
God  in  the  individual  man,  but  is  also  expressly  declared  to  be  the 
supreme  civil  authority  in  the  land,  for  ever  excluding  the  modern 
doctrine  of  secession  as  a  civil  or  political  right;  that,  since  the 
existing  rebellion  finds  no  justification  in  the  facts  of  the  case  or 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  in  any  law  human  or  divine, 
the  Assembly  can  regard  it  only  as  treason  against  the  nation  and 
a  most  offensive  sin  in  the  sight  of  God,  justly  exposing  its  authors 
to  the  retributive  vengeance  of  earth  and  heaven  ;  that  this 
rebellion,  in  its  origin,  history  and  measures,  has  been  distinguished 
by  those  qualities  which  most  sadly  evince  the  depravity  of  our 
nature,  especially  in  seeking  to  establish  a  new  nationality  on  this 
continent  based  on  the  perpetual  enslavement  and  oppression  of  a 
weak  and  long-injured  race ;  that  the  national  forces  are,  in  the 
view  of  this  Assembly,  called  out,  not  to  wage  war  against  another 
government,  but  to  suppress  insurrection,  preserve  the  supremacy 
of  law  and  order  and  save  the  country  from  anarchy  and  ruin." 

So  again,  in  1864 ;  the  Old  School  Assembly  felt  free  to  make  the 
following  deliverance:  "It  is  our  judgment  that  the  recent  events  of 
our  history,  and  the  present  condition  of  our  Church  and  country, 
furnish  manifest  tokens  that  the  time  has  at  length  come,  in  the  provi- 
dence of  God,  when  it  is  his  will  that  every  vestige  of  human  slavery 
among  us  should  be  effaced,  and  that  every  Christian  man  should  ad 
dress  himself  with  industry  and  earnestness  to  his  appropriate  part  in 
the  performance  of  this  great  duty.  .  .  .  Under  the  influence  of  the 
most  incomprehensible  infatuation  of  wickedness,  those  who  we^e 
most  interested  in  the  perpetuation  of  slavery  have  taken  away 
every  motive  for  its  further  toleration.  .  .  . 

It  is  the  President's  declared  policy  not  to  consent  to  the  reor- 
ganization of  civil  government  within  the  seceded  States  upon  any 
other  basis  than  that  of  emancipation." 

And  the  New  School  Assembly,  in  1865,  the  following:  "In  An- 
drew Johnson,  so  unexpectedly  called  to  the  chair  of  our  martyred 


APPENDIX.  621 

Chief,  the  Assembly  recognize  a  man  distinguished  for  a  long 
course  of  earnest  effort  to  elevate  the  masses,  and  for  a  steady,  con- 
sistent patriotism  that  neither  the  power  nor  the  favor  of  a  treas- 
onable oligarchy  has  been  able  successfully  to  assail  or  seduce. 
We  desire  to  pledge  to  him,  as  our  constitutional  Chief  Magistrate, 
our  confidence  and  support  in  his  efforts  to  vindicate  the  majesty 
of  law;  maintain  the  National  Government  in  its  just  supremacy ; 
destroy  the  spirit  and  counteract  the  workings  of  the  evil  system 
that  created  this  war;  inspire  a  just  appreciation  of  the  crime  of 
treason  and  a  true  loyalty  to  the  Government  in  the  breasts  of  the 
masses  of  the  white  population  of  the  South ;  and  extend  to  the 
colored  citizens  of  that  section  the  practical  enjoyment  of  those 
personal  and  political  rights  announced  in  the  Declaration  of  In 
dependence,  but  denied  to  them  by  a  despotic  aristocracy."  (Mil* 
utes,  1865.) 

And  the  following  in  1866:  "And,  as  promoting  this  end,  which 
far  transcends  any  mere  political  or  party  object,  we  rejoice  that 
the  active  functions  of  the  Freedman's  Bureau  are  still  continued, 
and  especially  that  the  Civil  Eights  Bill  has  become  the  law  of 
the  land.  In  respect  to  the  concession  of  the  right  of  suffrage  to 
the  colored  race,  this  Assembly  adheres  to  the  resolution  passed  by 
our  Assembly  of  1865  (Minutes,  p.  42):  "That  the  colored  man 
should  in  this  country  enjoy  the  right  of  suffrage  in  common  with 
all  other  men  is  but  a  simple  dictate  of  justice.  The  Assembly 
cannot  perceive  any  good  reason  why  he  should  be  deprived  of 
this  right  on  the  ground  of  his  color  or  his  race.  Even  if  suf- 
frage may  not  be  universal,  let  it  be  at  least  impartial. 

2.  In  case  such  impartial  suffrage  is  not  conceded,  that  we  may 
still  reap  the  legitimate  fruits  of  our  national  victory  over  seces- 
sion and  slavery,  and  that  treason  and  rebellion  may  not  enure  to 
the  direct  political  advantage  of  the  guilty,  we  judge  it  to  be  a 
simple  act  of  justice  that  the  constitutional  basis  of  representation 
in  Congress  should  be  so  far  altered  as  to  meet  the  exigencies  grow- 
ing out  of  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  we  likewise  hold  it  to  be 
the  solemn  duty  of  our  national  Executive  and  Congress  to  adopt 
only  such  method  of  reconstruction  as  shall  effectually  protect  all 
loyal  persons  in  the  States  lately  in  revolt.     (Minutes,  1866.) 

3.  As  loyalty  is  the  highest  civic  virtue  and  treason  the  highest 
civic  crime,  so  it  is  necessary  for  the  due  vindication  and  satisfac- 


622  APPENDIX. 

tion  of  national  justice  that  the  chief  fomenters  and  representatives 
of  the  rebellion  should,  by  due  course  and  process  of  law,  be  visited 
with  condign  punishment."  (Minutes,  1866.) 

From  these  citations  in  contrast,  and  more  particularly  from  an 
official  tract  recently  issued  entitled  "  The  Distinctive  Principles  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  commonly  called  the  Southern  Presbyterian 
Church,  the  following  may  be  enumerated  as  among  the  more  dis- 
tinctive principles  of  the  Southern  body,  while  accepting  the  same 
symbols  of  doctrine  and  order  as  the  Northern  Church : 

1.  More  rigid  adherence  to  the  doctrinal  symbols  of  Westmin 
ster,   discarding   all   theories   of  "  progress "   and   of  "  advanced 
thought"  as  inapplicable  to  doctrinal  teachings  derived  directly 
from  the  infallible  word. 

2.  More  rigid  adherence  to  the  views  of  the  Scottish  Reformers 
concerning  the  nature  and  duty  of  the  Church  as  a  witness-bearer 
against  all  false  teaching,  and  discarding  all  "Broad  Church" 
schemes  of  comprehension  as  incompatible  with  the  nature  and 
purpose  of  the  visible  Church. 

3.  Asserting  the  Church  of  Christ,  organized  and  visible,  as  an 
essential  element  of  the  gospel,  and  that  the  sinner  born  again  is 
born  into  a  visible  family  of  God,  with  new  relations  not  only  to 
Christ,  but  also  to  Christ's  organized  body. 

4.  Asserting  the  Kingly  office  of  Christ  in  his  Church  as  a 
great  practical  truth  which  necessitates  the  jure  divino  character 
of  all  Church  government  and  ordinances  of  worship. 

5.  Asserting  a  strict  construction  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
Church  and  a  scriptural  administration  of  the  government  and 
ordinances,  as  essential  to  purity  of-  doctrine  as  well  as  of  Chris- 
tian Liberty. 

6.  The  absolute  spirituality  and  independency  of  Christ's  visible 
kingdom  as  against  all  tendencies  to  employ  the  Church  and  her 
agencies  in  the  service  of  secular  governments,  or  to  accept  secular 
aid  in  support  of  the  Church,  or  to  tolerate  the  interference  of  the 
secular  power  with  the  spiritual  affairs  of  th.e  Church. 


